August 23, 2010

Root
PATR(I), PATER – father; homeland

As we discussed last week, this root comes from the Latin word pater, meaning “father.” In some cases, this root can take on additional meaning. For instance, we have already talked about how it can represent “fatherland,” referring to one’s home country. The word patron, discussed below, carries a sense of “support,” since a father is supposed to provide support for his family.

Another metaphorical sense is revealed in the Latin word patrare, which is based on pater. Patrare means “to carry out,” presumably because a father’s cultural role in ancient Rome was to “carry out” the business of the family. The root patrare gives us the English word perpetrate, which literally means “to carry out fully or perform.” This word originally had no positive or negative connotation, but it has gradually become more and more associated with negative actions (i.e. “to perpetrate a crime”). Hence, the related word perpetrator, which means “criminal.”

• patrician (adj.) [patri, “father” + -cian, “one who”] – typical of aristocrats or the upper class
  With a patrician tone, Alistair informed the couple that their clothes were not fine enough to enter the country club.
  Noun form: patrician – an aristocrat or other wealthy person, or one who acts like an aristocrat
• patricide (n.) [patri, “father” + -cide, “to kill”] – the act of killing one’s father
  The majority of all patricides in America are due to an abused child killing his or her father in self-defense.
  Verb form: patricide
  Adjective form: patricidal
  Alternate noun form: patricide – one who kills his or her father
• patrimony (n.) [patri, “father” + mony, “possessions”] – an inheritance from a father; a legacy passed down from earlier generations
  Saul’s patrimony included not only vast wealth but also the attitude of scrupulousness and gravity that had been characteristic of his father.
  Adjective form: patrimonial
• patron (n.) [patr, “father” + -on] – one who gives money to support something (esp. the arts); a regular customer
  The painter’s ambitious art projects were financed by several patrons, including billionaire businessman Warren Buffett.
  Verb form: patronize – to treat someone as if he or she is less intelligent; to be a regular customer; to support something with money
  Adjective form: patronizing – with a tone that indicates a feeling of one’s superior intellect or knowledge
• patronymic (n.) [patr, “father” + onym, “name”] – a name derived from a male ancestor’s name, like names ending in “-son” or beginning with “Mc”
  The six most common patronymics in American surnames are Johnson, Anderson, Jackson, Thompson, Martinez, and Rodriguez.
  Adjective form: patronymic

August 16, 2010

Root
PATR(I), PATER – father; homeland

This week’s root comes from the Latin word pater, meaning “father.” This root and the English word father share an origin in a long-forgotten language, as do the equivalent words in many other languages, including padre (Spanish & Italian), pere (French), vader (Dutch), Vater (German), and far (Swedish & Norwegian).

The meaning of this root was extended in some cases to refer to one’s “fatherland,” or homeland. This sense is used in the English word patriot, which literally means “one from the same fatherland,” as well as the first two words below.

• compatriot (n.) [com- (con-), “with” + patri, “homeland” + -ot, “person of”] – someone from the same country; a colleague or friend
  At the World Cup soccer tournament, the American sought out his compatriots to help root for the U.S. team.
• expatriate (v.) [ex-, “out of” + patri, “homeland” + -ate] – to settle in another country; to renounce one’s original citizenship; to send someone away from his or her home country
  In the early 20th century, many prominent American artists and writers such as Sylvia Plath and Ernest Hemingway were expatriated to France or England.
  Noun form: expatriate – one who lives in a country other than one’s homeland; one who has renounced one’s original citizenship
  Adjective form: expatriate
  Antonym: repatriate – to send someone back to his or her country of birth; to send money that has been invested back to its country of origin
• paterfamilias (n.) [pater, “father” + familias, “family” (Latin)] – a man serving in the role of father (who may not necessarily be a biological father)
  The paterfamilias of our orphanage was Doctor Wilson, who gave us advice and kept us out of trouble.
• paternal (adj.) [pater, “father” + -(n)al] – relating to or typical of fathers; on one’s father’s side of the family; inherited from one’s father
  The juvenile court judge had a paternal air about him; he seemed to want to help each of the troubled youths who came into his courtroom.
  Noun form: paternalism – an approach to relationships that focuses on the desire to help or protect, to the extent that it often neglects the individual wishes of others
  Alternate adjective form: paternalistic
• paternity (n.) [pater, “father” + -(n)ity] – a man’s role or status as father; biological fatherhood; origin
  More and more companies are allowing male employees to take paternity leave after their children are born.
• patriarch (n.) [patri, “father” + arch, “rule”] – a man who is the head of a family or other group; a respected and experienced man within a group
  The patriarch of the extended O’Malley clan is Liam O’Malley, or as he is known to his many younger relatives, “Uncle Liam.”
  Alternate noun form: patriarchy – a culture in which men are the most powerful members
  Adjective form: patriarchal

August 9, 2010

Root
SON – sound

This week’s root comes from the Latin word sonus, meaning “sound.” You may notice that the word sound itself is similar to this root; and with good reason, because sound itself comes from this root. Other common words related to sonus include sonic (literally, “related to sound”), supersonic (“beyond the sound barrier”), consonant (so called because it was thought that consonants could only be pronounce “with” a vowel sound), sonata (a type of musical composition), and sonnet (a type of poem named after its characteristic “sound”).

Be careful when using this root, especially at the end of words. Many English words end in “son,” but as far as I can tell, only one of them (unison, discussed below) is related to this root. Most of the rest use the French-inspired suffix –son, which is just a different spelling of the more familiar endings –tion, -sion, etc.

• assonance (n.) [as- (ad-), “toward” + son, “sound” + -ance] – a similarity between vowel sounds in a song or poem
  The sentence “With this, Miss Britt licked her lips.” is full of assonance.
  Adjective form: assonant
• consonance (n.) [con-, “with” + son, “sound” + -ance] – agreement or harmony; a similarity between sounds in a song or poem, often within or at the end of words; a pleasing combination of sounds
  The three brothers, who usually disagreed on everything, showed a surprising consonance when asked which movie they wanted to see.
  Adjective form: consonant
• dissonance (n.) [dis-, “against” + son, “sound” + -ance] – an unpleasant combination of sounds; a lack of compatibility between actions or beliefs
  There was a great dissonance between supposed fairness of the law and the actual, unjust way in which it was enforced.
  Adjective form: dissonant
• resonate (v.) [re-, “back” + son, “sound” + -ate] – to echo, or cause something to echo; to have an impact beyond that which is immediately obvious; to produce a response by reminding a person of something
  Though Oksana did not at first enjoy the book, its themes eventually resonated with her, and before long she could think of little else.
  Noun form: resonance
  Noun form: resonant
• sonorous (adj.) [sonor, “full of sound” + -ous] – sounding or spoken with loud, deep, clear tones; impressive-sounding
  The actor’s sonorous voice filled the entire theater so that no one had to strain to hear his words.
  Noun form: sonorousness
• unison (n.) [uni-, “one” + son, “sound”] – (in music) two or more parts sharing the same pitch; two or more people saying the same thing at the same time; agreement or harmony (used after “in”)
  The principal urged the students to repeat the words of the school’s motto in unison.

July 26, 2010

Root
GRAT(I) – pleasing, free

This week’s root comes from the Latin word gratus, meaning “pleasing.” It gives us several obvious words—grateful (“full of pleasure”), gratitude (“state of being pleased”), and congratulate (“to share one’s pleasure with another”) among them. It also gives us a few common words that are a bit less obvious, at least based on their spelling. The first of these is grace, which despite the ‘c’ comes from gratus. Grace originally meant “good favor” or “thankfulness,” but it gradually acquired a religious connotation of “God’s thankfulness or help.” The original sense still exists in the word gracious (“pleasing in manners or attitude”). Even further from the spelling of the root is the word agree, which comes from the French phrase a gré (meaning “favorably” or “with goodwill”). In that phrase, gré is a form of gratus. So if someone agrees with you, they literally “pleased” with what you are saying. This sense comes through in the word agreeable, or “easily pleased.”

One word (or words) that is not related to this root is grate; neither the noun (“a metal framework that covers a gap”) nor the verb (“to irritate”) is derived from gratus. The noun comes from the Latin cratus, as does our modern word crate. The verb comes from the Germanic word kratzen, meaning “to scratch.”

• gratify (v.) [grati, “pleasing” + -fy, “to make”] – to make someone feel pleased; to satisfy a desire
  Moira took pride in being able to gratify all of her clients’ wishes through her hard work and joyous personality.
  Noun form: gratification
  Adjective form: gratifying
• gratis (adj.) [grat-, “pleasing, free” + -is] – given without cost or payment
  The contest winners received airfare, hotel accommodations, and meals, all gratis.
  Adverb form: gratis
• gratuitous (adj.) [grat, “free” + -uitous (after fortuitous)] – unnecessary and unjustifiable; received or given without payment
  Though Lonnie is a fan of cheesy horror movies, he considers the blood and gore in “Vampires Versus Werewolves” to be quite gratuitous.
  Noun form: gratuitousness
• gratuity (n.) [grat, “pleasing” + uit, (similar to gratuitous) + -y] – a small gift given in exchange for a service
  Because he was so pleased with his waitress’ service, Pablo left her a large gratuity.
• ingrate (n.) [in-, “not” + grate, “pleasing”] – a person without gratitude
  After Oliver refused to thank his tutor for helping him pass his English test, his sister accused him of being an ingrate.
  Adjective form: ingrateful (or more commonly, ungrateful)
• ingratiate (adj.) [in-, “in” + grati, “pleasing” + -ate] – to attempt to gain someone’s favor, especially so as to gain an advatage
  Judy tried to ingratiate herself to her boss so that she could be switched from the night shift to a less tiring shift during the day.
  Noun form: ingratiation
  Adjective form: ingratiating

July 20, 2010

Root
PAN(TO) – all

This week’s root is a common prefix derived from a Greek root that is also spelled pan. You may have heard of the organ called the pancreas. The word pancreas comes from pan (“all”) plus the Greek root kreas, meaning “flesh, meat.” It got its name from the fact that, when an animal’s pancreas was eaten, it had a very fleshy texture with very little fat or other substance to it—in other words, it was “all flesh.”

Two other interesting, though less common words come from this root. The first, pangram, meaning “all writing,” refers to a sentence that contains every letter in the English alphabet. The most famous example of this is “The quick brown fox jumps over a lazy dog.” The other word, Pangaea, is the name of the ancient “super-continent” that contained all the Earth’s landmasses, before they split apart through continental drift to become Asia, Africa, the Americas, and so on. Pangaea supposedly began splitting up around 200 million years ago.

• panegyric (n.) [pan-, “all” + gyr, “gathering” + -ic] – extravagant and formal praise; a eulogy
  In his panegyric to the late singer, Morton praised her style, talent, wisdom, and good humor.
  Verb form: panegyrize
  Adjective form: panegyrical
• panoply (n.) [pan, “all” + (h)opl, “armor” + -y] – a wide-ranging and impressive array or display; a complete suit of armor
  The art festival featured such a wonderful panoply of paintings, sculptures, and other artwork that no one could hope to see it all in one day.
• pantheism (n.) [pan-, “all” + the, “god” + -ism] – the belief that God is present in everything; the worship of all deities
  According to the tenets of pantheism, every person, animal, or inanimate object is an aspect of God.
  Other noun form: pantheist – one who believes in pantheism
  Adjective form: pantheistic
• pantheon (n.) [pan-, “all” + the, “god” + -on] – all the deities of a religion considered together; a group of people who are the most famous or respected in their field
  The young writer’s first two novels were so well-received that some critics had already placed him among the pantheon of great American novelists.
  Adjective form: pandemic
• pantomime (n.) [panto-, “all” + mime, “imitate”] – the art or technique of conveying emotions, actions, etc. using gestures and without speech
  Forced to communicate without speech due to his sore throat, Barry made his desires known through pantomime.
  Verb form: pantomime – to convey using gestures (and not speech)
  Adjective form: pantomimic

July 12, 2010

Root
PAN(TO) – all

This week’s root is a common prefix derived from a Greek root that is also spelled pan. In addition to the words detailed below, this prefix is often used in front of common words that describe groups of people to signify that all the individual groups are represented. For instance, a restaurant that serves pan-Asian cuisine can be expected to have dishes from many Asian countries. The now-defunct airline Pan-American (or Pan-Am) is named in this fashion, since it once took travelers to all parts of the Americas (North and South).

As we are about to see, one sense of the word pan is derived from this root, but the most common sense (as in a “frying pan”), does not come from this root but rather from a Latin root related to cooking and bread.

• panorama (n.) [pan-, “all” + (h)orama, “to see”] – an unobstructed view in all directions; a discussion of all points of an issue; a picture or movie with a particularly wide view
  From the top of the cliff, I could look out on the marvelous panorama of the surrounding countryside.
  Adjective form: panoramic
• pan (v.) [pan, short for panoramic] – to move a camera horizontally so as to capture a wide view
  The football cameraman was skilled at panning his camera to cover the flight of the ball.
  Noun form: pan – a horizontal movement of a camera
• panacea (n.) [pan-, “all” + acea, “to cure”] – a supposed cure for all diseases or problems
  Though his plan was not a panacea for the theater’s many troubles, it would at least guarantee that the theater would stay in business for the next year.
• pandemic (n.) [pan-, “all” + dem, “people” + -ic] – a widespread disease that affects people in many countries
  The so-called “swine flu” pandemic in 2009 was less deadly than experts had feared, though it was still quite costly.
  Adjective form: pandemic
• pandemonium (n.) [pan-, “all” + demon, “evil force” + -ium] – wild uproar and chaos; a place that is noisy or chaotic
  When the hometown baseball team won the World Series, the streets around the stadium erupted in joyous pandemonium.

July 6, 2010

Root
STRING, STRICT, STRAIN – to bind

This week’s root is from two related Latin words: stringere, meaning “to bind,” and strictus, meaning “bound together, tight, or rigid.” It is the source of many common English words, starting with string (literally, “something which binds”) and strict (literally, “narrow or rigid of mind”). Other common words from this root include restrain (literally, “to tie back”) and strain (“to stretch tight”).

Another pair of words is less obvious, but still related to this root: stress and distress. These words derive from the French destresse, which in turn comes from Old French estrece, which itself comes from the Latin strictus. The original meaning of “to feel as if bound or restricted” gradually changed into the more modern usages of “to feel hardship, force, or pressure.”

• astringent (adj.) [a(d)-, “toward” + string, “binding” + -ent] – hurtful or bitter in tone; stern or severe in manner; sharply incisive
  The movie reviewer was known for his astringent criticisms, as a result of which he had few friends in the film industry.
  Noun form: astringency – a hurtful or bitter tone
  Related noun form: astringent – a substance used on the skin to draw tissue together
• constrain (v.) [con-, “together” + strain, “to bind”] – to limit or restrict; to force someone to do something; to hold back from an action
  In an attempt to constrain the wild puppy’s behavior, Jane signed it up for behavioral training.
  Noun form: constraint – something that physically restrains a person’s movements; something that limits a person’s actions
  Adjective form: constraining
• constrict (v.) [con-, “together” + strict, “to bind”] – to make something narrower; to limit a person’s movement; to squeeze with great force
  Melanie felt constricted by the tight seatbelt, so she
  loosened it.
  Noun form: constriction – the act or process of narrowing, limiting, or squeezing
  Adjective form: constrictive
• prestige (n.) [pre-, “before” + stige (stringe), “binding”] – favorable reputation or distinction
  The new restaurant quickly gained prestige when the Vice-President and several visiting foreign dignitaries ate there on its opening night.
  Adjective form: prestigious
  Note: This word has an interesting history. It originally meant “deception or delusion” and referred to the tricks played by a magician, which “bound” the viewer’s mind. Gradually, the word took on the more favorable connotation that it has today, since a particularly prestigious magician would naturally gain quite a reputation.
• strait (n.) [strait (strict), “bound”] – a narrow passage of water between two larger bodies of water; (plural) a position of difficulty or distress
  Mitch found himself in dire straits when he ran out of gas 30 miles from the nearest town.
  Adjective form: strait – narrow or confining
  Related words strait jacket – a jacket-like garment with very long sleeves that can be tied to restrict a person’s movements
  strait-laced – very strict in morals (from laced garments, which can be “straitened”)
• stricture (n.) [strict, “to bind” + -ure] – a severe criticism; a harsh or unfair restriction
  The strictures of the school’s headmistress were met with great anger from the students.
• stringent (adj.) [string, “binding” + -ent] – strictly controlled or enforced
  The nation’s laws governing immigration are so stringent that it is nearly impossible to immigrate legally.
  Noun form: stringency

June 24, 2010

Root
SCRIB(E), SCRIPT – to write

This week’s root is from two related Latin words: scribere, meaning “to write,” and scriptum, meaning “something written.” If you have ever typed a document in a word processor (and who hasn’t these days), you are no doubt familiar with the words subscript (such as the “4” in C4) and superscript (such as the “2” in x2). These words literally mean “under-writing” and “over-writing,” respectively. Another common word from this root is scribble, which is just an informal synonym of “writing.”

Finally, there is prescribe (as in what a doctor does to allow you to get a medicine). Do not confuse prescribe with proscribe, which is defined below. If you know that the prefix pre- means “before,” that can help you remember. Before you get medicine, you need a prescription.

• postscript (n.) [post-, “after” + script, “writing”] – an addition to the end of something (especially a written work); a short message added to the end of a letter, after the signature
  As a postscript to the article about weight loss plans, the journalist noted that he had lost 50 pounds on his own through simple diet and exercise.
• proscribe (v.) [pro-, “forward” + scribe, “to write”] – to prohibit; to condemn (an action); to banish (a person)
  After students playing hackey-sack injured two bystanders on school grounds, the principal proscribed the game.
  Noun form: proscription
  Adjective form: proscriptive
• scribe (n.) [scribe, “to write”] – someone who copies or writes out documents; an official public clerk; a writer or journalist (often used humorously)
  The President joked that his speech must have disappointed the hundreds of scribes assigned to cover it, because it provided no short, easily understandable quotations.
• scripture (n.) [script, “writing” + -ure] – sacred writings, particularly from the Bible; any authoritative statement
  The followers of the charismatic leader treated her every word as if it were scripture, obeying her demands to the letter and without hesitation.
  Adjective form: scriptural
• scrivener (n.) [scriven (scribe), “to write” + -er] – someone whose job is to make handwritten texts
  In medieval times, poets relied on scriveners to produce copies of their work for distribution.
• transcribe (v.) [trans-, “across” + scribe, “to write”] – to write out an exact copy; to write down spoken words; to translate; to transfer information from one medium to another
  Since no video or audio recorders are allowed in the courtroom, the court reporter must transcribe the witness testimony for the public record.
  Noun form: transcript – a written record of something; a document showing which courses a student has completed
  Other noun form: transcription – the process of writing out a copy of something

June 21, 2010

Root
SCRIB(E), SCRIPT – to write

This week’s root is from two related Latin words: scribere, meaning “to write,” and scriptum, meaning “something written.” This root is used in many common English words, including script, which literally means “a written document.” Among the other common words from this root are describe (literally, “to write for”) and subscribe (literally, “to write underneath”). Today, we use subscribe to mean either “to pay to receive something over a period of time (such as a magazine)” or “to support a viewpoint.” These senses both come from the idea that signing one’s name at the bottom of a document is equivalent to a pledge to support the statements made above the signature.

• ascribe (v.) [a- (ad-), “toward” + scribe, “to write”] – to believe or say that something was caused by another (named) thing, or written by a particular person
  Though he was certainly a very quotable man, many of the famous sayings ascribed to Mark Twain are in fact the work of other writers.
• circumscribe (v.) [circum-, “around” + scribe, “to write”] – to limit the power of something or someone; to draw a geometrical figure that surrounds another figure so they touch at each vertex but do not intersect
  In an effort to circumscribe his son’s wild behavior, Ron set a 10 p.m. curfew.
  Noun form: circumscription
  Adjective form: circumscriptive
• conscript (v.) [con-, “together” + script, “writing”] – to force someone to enroll (in military service)
  When the emperor began to run out of soldiers, he conscripted ten thousand more.
  Noun form: conscript – someone who has been forced to enroll in a service (usually the military)
  Other noun form: conscription – the process of forced participation in military service
• escritoire (n.) [French version of Latin word scriptorium, “place for writing”] – a writing desk
  The famous journalist did all of his writing while sitting at his antique escritoire.
• inscribe (v.) [in-, “in” + scribe, “to write”] – to write a signed message to someone, usually in a book or on a photograph; to engrave a message on a hard surface; to draw a geometric figure inside a circumscribing figure
  When I gave the book of poems to my father, I inscribed the inside cover with a quote from his favorite poem and a personal message.
  Noun form: inscription
  Adjective form: inscriptive
• manuscript (n.) [manu, “hand” + script, “writing”] – a book or other text written by hand; an author’s draft of a text that is submitted for publication (not necessarily hand-written); handwriting
  Before turning in the first draft of the manuscript to her publisher, Penelope revised several passages and added a car-chase scene.

June 14, 2010

Root
UMBR(A) – shadow

This week’s root is from the Latin word umbra, meaning “shade, shadow.” In English, this root can be used to mean several things. The most common English word is of course umbrella, which literally means “little shadow.” Though today we mostly use umbrellas as protection from the rain, their original purpose was to provide shade from the scorching Mediterranean sun.

• adumbrate (v.) [ad-, “toward” + umbr, “shadow” + -ate] – to give a vague outline of something; to foreshadow or warn vaguely; to obscure or darken partially
  When asked about her plans, the CEO would only adumbrate, saying mysteriously that her company had “a big announcement.”
  Noun form: adumbration – a vague outline; a foreshadowing
  Adjective forms: adumbral, adumbrative
• penumbra (n.) [pen-, “around” + umbra, “shadow”] – a shadowy or obscure area; the area of partial shadow that surrounds the edges of a more complete shadow (as in an eclipse)
  What we call “twilight” occurs when an area of the Earth is in the penumbra of the sun, an area of neither direct sunlight nor total darkness.
  Adjective form: penumbral
• somber (adj.) [from the French sombre, which itself is from sub-, “under” + umbra, “shadow”] – gloomily dark or shadowy; gloomy or depressing in mood or tone; extremely serious; dark or dull in color
  The mood in the classroom turned somber when the principal announced that a student had been in a serious car accident.
  Noun form: somberness
• umbrage (n.) [umbr, “shadow” + -age] – resentment or annoyance due to an offense; something that gives shade
  George took umbrage at the reviewer who called his performance “stiff and unconvincing.”
• umbrageous (adj.) [umbr, “shadow” + -age + -ous] – casting a shadow
  The large elm at the center of town was quite umbrageous; dozens of children could sit in its shade at one time.

June 7, 2010

Root
CARN – flesh, body, meat

This week’s root is from the Latin word carnis, meaning “of the flesh.” In English, this root can be used to mean several things. It can mean “meat,” as in carnivore, which literally means “flesh-eater.” It can also refer to human flesh, as with the flower called the carnation, which was so named because its color resembled that of human skin (at least in northern Europe). Finally, it can refer to human bodies as a whole, as with some of the words defined below.

One common word comes from this root, though you wouldn’t know it from its current meaning: carnival. Originally, a carnival was a festival that occurred before the Catholic period of fasting known as Lent. Since Catholics commonly gave up meat during Lent, the festival was called carne vale (or “farewell to meat”). Gradually, the term carnival came to refer to any large festival before taking on its more specific meaning today.

• carcass (n.) [car(n), “body” + -cass, “case”] – the dead body of an animal, especially one that has been slaughtered for meat; the last remains of something; a basic framework
  After the lion had killed its prey, it immediately began to devour the carcass.
• carnage (n.) [carn, “body” + -age] – widespread and reckless killing
  The carnage of the Battle of the Wilderness in the Civil War was unprecedented, as more than 10,000 men were killed in the 3-day battle.
• carnal (adj.) [carn, “flesh” + -al] – related to a person’s physical needs (as contrasted with spiritual or intellectual needs); sensual; related to the body
  Lowell preferred carnal pursuits such as fine dining to more intellectual ones, like opera or poetry.
  Noun form: carnality
• carrion (n.) [car(n), “flesh” + -ion] – the rotting flesh of a dead animal; anything that is decaying
  The vulture is an ugly bird, but its eating habits are even uglier—it feeds exclusively on carrion.
• incarnadine (adj.) [in-, “in” + carn, “body” + -ate + -ine] – blood-colored (crimson)
  The movie used incarnadine colors to foreshadow death; for instance, a woman wearing a red scarf was soon struck by a car when crossing the street.
  Noun form: incarnadine – crimson
  Verb form: incarnadine – to make something crimson-colored
• incarnation (n.) [in-, “in” + carn, “body” + -ate + -ion] – the appearance of a supernatural being in human (or animal) form; someone who personifies a particular quality or idea
  Ginnie is the very incarnation of goodness; everything she does is to help another person.
  Verb form: incarnate – to give something a bodily form (particularly a human form); to be the personification of something
  Adjective form: incarnate – having a bodily form (particularly a human one); being the epitome of something
• reincarnate (v.) [re-, “again” + in-, “in” + carn, “body” + -ate] – to be brought back to life in another body; to present something again in a new form after it had previously been rejected
  According to Hindu beliefs, a person is reincarnated after his or her death in the form of another being—either an animal or a human.
  Noun form: reincarnation

June 2, 2010

Root
SIM(IL)(UL), SEM(BLE) – same or similar

This week's root is from the Latin word similis, meaning "like." Two other common words that come from this root are resemble (literally meaning "be very alike") and assemble (literally meaning "toward same"). In these words, the -semble spelling is simply a corruption of the original form simil, based on the way the original form was pronounced in the early years of English.

• simulacrum (n.) [simula, “same” + -crum, “object”] – an image or representation of something else, especially an imperfect one
  The hologram was supposed to be a picture of Shari, but it was only a poor, unconvincing simulacrum.
  Plural form: simulacra
• simultaneous (adj.) [simul, “same” + (instan)taneous] – happening at the same time
  The clown was able to simultaneously juggle 5 balls and ride a unicycle.
  Noun form: simultaneity
• simile (n.) [simile, “same”] – a figure of speech that uses the words “like” or “as” to make a comparison between two dissimilar objects
  One of my favorite similes is “Her eyes were as blue as the oceans of Bermuda.”
• similitude (n.) [simili, “same” + -tude, “state of”] – likeness or resemblance; a shared characteristic
  The mischievous twin sisters preferred each other’s clothes to have a great similitude so that others could not tell them apart.
• verisimilitude (n.) [veri, “true” + simili, “same” + -tude, “state of”] – the appearance of being true or real; something that appears to be true or real but is not supported by evidence
  The photograph had been altered, but the changes were made with such verisimilitude that only a few experts could tell what had been done.
  Adjective form: verisimilar or verisimilitudinous

May 24, 2010

Root
SIM(IL)(UL), SEM(BLE) – same or similar

This week's root is from the Latin word similis, meaning "like." Many common words derive from this root, starting with same and similar themselves. Another common word from this root is simulate, which literally means "to act the same" or "to create something that is similar to another thing."

Another common word, fax, is an abbreviation of the word facsimile. See below for more about facsimile.

• assimilate (v.) [as- (ad-), “toward” + “simil, “same” + -ate] – to integrate into a larger group so that differences are minimized or eliminated
  The new immigrants immediately began to assimilate into their new surroundings, signing up for English classes and finding jobs.
  Noun form: assimilation
• dissemble (v.) [dis-, “against” + semble, “same”] – to put on a false appearance in order to conceal something; to mislead through pretense
  The politician had an unfortunate tendency to dissemble; he even told stories about being the captain of his college’s swim team when he was not even on the team.
  Noun form: dissemblance
• ensemble (n.) [en, “in” + semble, “same”] – a group of items that work together to create a whole; a group of people who perform together with equal contributions from each member
  While none of the articles of clothing in Sharon’s outfit were noteworthy on their own, the total ensemble produced a spectacular effect.
• facsimile (n.) [fac, “to make” + simile, “same”] – an exact copy; a fax
  While the artist’s reproduction of the famous painting was not a perfect facsimile, it was good enough to fool many casual observers.
  Verb form: facsimile
• semblance (n.) [sembl, “same” + -ance] – an outward appearance of similarity; an imitation; a small amount of something
  When the criminal testified during his trial, he did not show even a semblance of guilt for what he had done.

May 17, 2010

Root
AMBL, AMBUL – to walk

This week’s root is from the Latin verb ambulare, meaning “to walk.” Ambulare is actually a combination of the common Latin prefix ambi- (meaning “around” or “both”) and the root ulare, meaning “to go.” So it literally means “to go around.”

Certainly the most common English word from this root is one that seemingly has no connection to walking: ambulance. Though today we think of ambulances as being vehicles that take you to the hospital, that is not the original sense of the word. The original ambulances were battlefield hospitals; their name was from the French hôpital ambulant, which literally means “walking hospital,” because its patients would walk to it from the battlefield. Gradually, this meaning shifted to the horse-drawn carts and other vehicles that were used to transport the wounded from the field, until eventually the sense of ambulance as being a vehicle was the only one that remained.

• amble (v.) [amble, “walk”] – to walk in a slow and relaxed manner
  Rather than rush to her next class, Serena calmly ambled through the halls, knowing that she would not be late.
• ambulatory (adj.) [ambul, “walk” + -at(e) + -ory] – able to walk (as a recovering patient); related to or done while walking
  Mr. Allen had to use a wheelchair to get around the hospital because he was not yet ambulatory after his surgery.
  Verb form: ambulate – to walk
  Noun form: ambulation – the act of walking
• funambulist (n.) [fun, “rope” + ambul, “walk” + -ist] – a tightrope walker
  My favorite part of the circus was seeing the funambulist do cartwheels on the thin rope 50 feet above the ground.
  Verb form: funambulate – to walk on tightropes
  Other noun form: funambulism – the act of walking on tightropes
• perambulate (v.) [per-, “through” + ambul, “walk” + -ate] – to walk around or about a place
  As we perambulated through the museum, we saw many priceless works of art.
  Adjective form: perambulatory
  Noun form: perambulation
• preamble (n.) [pre-, “before” + amble, “walk”] – a section at the beginning of a document that explains the purpose of the document; anything that precedes or introduces
  The preamble to the U.S. Constitution lays out the fundamental principles of the new nation.
• somnambulist (n.) [somn, “sleep” + ambul, “walk” + -ist] – one who walks in his or her sleep
  Doctors say that waking a somnambulist is not advisable because it can startle them; instead, just return the sleepwalker to bed.
  Verb form: somnambulate – to sleepwalk
  Other noun form: somnambulism – the act or condition of sleepwalking

May 10, 2010

Root
FRAG, FRACT (also FRANG, FRING, FRAY) – to break

This week’s root is from the Latin word frangere, meaning “to break.” This verb had different spellings in its different forms, which explains how it can be spelled so many different ways in English words. Some common words that come from this word are fragment (literally, “a broken-off piece”), fracture (“a break”), fraction (“a number that has been broken apart”), and fragile (“easily broken”). You may have also heard of the mathematical concept of fractals, which are patterns that are produced by repeatedly subdividing (or “breaking apart”) a shape in a consistent way.

• defray (v.) [de-, “away” + fray (frag), “break”] – to pay part of the cost of something expensive
  Mr. Lowell offered to give his daughter $1000 to help defray the cost of her first car.
  Noun form: defrayment
• fractious (adj.) [fract, “break” + -ious] – irritable and complaining
  The fractious tempers of the children were only soothed when the teachers gave them popsicles.
  Noun form: fractiousness
• frangible (adj.) [frang, “break” + -ible] – capable of being broken or damaged
  The desk seemed to be sturdy, but its shoddy construction caused it to be quite frangible.
  Noun form: frangibility
• infraction (v.) [in-, “in” + fract, “break” + -tion] – a violation of a law, rule, or contract
  The student’s blatant infraction of the school’s honor code led to a week-long suspension.
• infringe (v.) [in-, “in” + fringe, “break”] – to violate a law, rule, or contract; to gradually take over the land, rights, etc. of someone else (with “upon”)
  Martin refused to infringe upon her neighbor’s land by planting a tree that would drop leaves across the property lines.
  Noun form: infringement – the act of infringing; an infraction
• refract (v.) [re-, “back” + fract, “break”] – to alter the course of a wave by causing it to pass from one medium into another (as with light passing from air into water)
  Helen’s prism refracted the sunlight and caused it to split into a rainbow of colors.
  Noun form: refraction

May 3, 2010

Root
VIV(E)(I), VIT – life

This week’s root is from the Latin word vivere, meaning “to live” and the related adjective vitalis, meaning “related to life.” The word vitamin comes from this root. The ending –amin comes from the fact that the man who coined the word, Polish chemist Casimir Funk, thought that vitamins contained amino acids.

• revitalize (v.) [re-, “again” + vit, “life” + -al + -ize] – to give new life or energy to someone or something
  The area was revitalized when the city tore down the abandoned warehouse and replaced it with a fancy shopping district.
  Noun form: revitalization
• viable (adj.) [vi (vit), “life” + -able] – able to be done; worth doing; able to develop normally or survive
  The plan to blast all of the city’s garbage into outer space was creative but not viable because it would cost far too much money.
  Noun form: viability
• victuals (pl. n.) [vi(c)t, “life” + -ual] – food and other necessary provisions (pronounced “vittles”)
  Because we were running low on victuals, my mother sent me to the store to get more flour, eggs, milk, and bacon.
• vital (adj.) [vit, “life” + -al] – extremely important or indispensable; full of life; relating to life; required for living
  Renee played a vital role in her team’s victory, scoring both goals and making several other key plays.
  Noun form: vitality – physical or mental energy; the ability to continue to live or grow
• bon vivant (n.) [French for “one who lives well”] – someone who enjoys the luxuries of life, such as good food
  A bon vivant of the first order, Nelson refused to eat anywhere but at the fanciest, most expensive restaurants.
• joie de vivre (n.) [French for “joy of life”] – energy and love of life; vitality
  Andrea’s joie de vivre was infectious; everyone around her felt happier and more alive.

April 26, 2010

Root
VIV(E)(I), VIT – life

This week’s root is from the Latin word vivere, meaning “to live” and the related adjective vivus, meaning “alive.” It is the source of the English word survive, which literally means “to live beyond.”

The word viper (as in the snake or a “poisonous” person) also comes from this root, though it is not immediately clear how. Viper is a contraction of the roots VIV and PARE (“to give birth to”, as in the word parent)—for more, see the word viviparous below. Vipers were originally thought to give birth to live young, though this belief turned out to be false (they lay eggs just as most snakes do).

• convivial (adj.) [con-, “together” + viv, “life” + -ial] – lively, friendly, or agreeable; fond of feasting and other lively group activities
  Soledad is not normally a convivial person, but she had a great time at the dinner party.
  Noun form: conviviality

• revive (v.) [re-, “again” + vive, “life”] – to bring back to life, consciousness, or full strength; to make active or popular again
  It took over a minute for Jessie’s friends to revive him after he passed out from the heat.
  Noun form: revival – a renewed interest in something; a new production of a play that has not been performed recently; the recovery of life, consciousness, or full strength
• vivacious (adj.) [viv, “life” + ac (ax), “full of” + -ious] – with a lively or high-spirited personality
  Whenever Eugene was feeling depressed, he spent a night on the town with some of his more vivacious friends.
  Noun forms: vivaciousness or vivacity
• vivid (adj.) [viv, “life” + -id] – true to life; bright or intense in color; producing clear mental images
  The novel vividly describes both the beauty and the filth of Elizabethan England so that the reader feels as if he or she is seeing what the protagonist sees.
  Noun form: vividness
• vivify (v.) [vivi, “life” + -fy, “to make”] – to give life to someone or something; to give liveliness to something
  In the story Pinocchio, Gepetto is able to vivify his favorite puppet so that it can move and think on its own.
  Noun form: vivification
• viviparous (adj.) [vivi, “life” + par, “give birth to” + -ous] – giving birth to live young (rather than laying eggs)
  Although most mammals are viviparous, the echidna and the platypus lay eggs.

April 15, 2010

Root
QUIE, QUIL – rest, quiet

This week’s root is from the Latin word quies, meaning “quiet” As you have probably guessed, this root is the source of the English word quiet. Though that is the only common English word that comes from this root, there are several good vocabulary words that use QUIE:

• acquiesce (v.) [ac- (ad-), “toward” + quie, “quiet” + -esce, “to become”] – to give in or agree, often silently or without protest
  Because she had no leverage in the negotiations, Jane had little choice but to acquiesce to all of the opposition’s demands.
  Adjective form: acquiescent – giving in without protest
  Noun form: acquiescence

• disquiet (n.) [dis-, “not” + quiet] – lack of calm or peace; anxiety or uneasiness
  The CEO’s comments caused great disquiet among the company’s investors, who were suddenly wondering if the company would survive another year.
  Verb form: disquiet – to cause anxiety
• quiescent (adj.) [quie, “quiet” + esc, “to become” + -ent] – being at peace or at rest; inactive or motionless
  Hugh spent much of his vacation lying quiescently on the beach, without a care in the world.
  Noun form: quiescence
  Verb form: quiesce – to become quiet or restful
• requiem (adj.) [“rest” (Latin); the first word of the Catholic mass for the dead] – a song or hymn for the dead
  As the organist played a requiem, the mourners paid their last respect to the deceased.
• tranquil (adj.) [trans-, “across, very” + quil, “quiet”] – quiet, peaceful, or calm; unaffected by emotions, serene
  The Japanese garden was a tranquil place—perfect for quiet contemplation or meditation.
  Noun form: tranquility
  Verb form: tranquilize – to make something calm or quiet
  Other noun form: tranquilizer – a drug that calms or sedates a patient without causing sleep

April 8, 2010

Root: PET(U), PIT – to seek, to go toward

This week's root is from the Latin word petere, meaning "to seek or rush at." This root is the source of the common English words compete (competitor, competitive, competition) and repeat (repetitive, repetition). Compete literally means "to seek together," as in the case of a group of people "competing" to win a prize. Repeat literally means "to seek again." In the case of repeat, the spelling is a bit different, but you can see how the extra "a" drops out in the other forms. You probably also know the word petition, which is literally "an instance of seeking," but more specifically refers to a document by which a person or group "seeks" to enact a change.

If you have taken physics, you may also have heard the word centripetal, which refers to forces that move toward the center of a rotating object. The prefix centri- means "center," so centripetal literally means "seeking the center."

• competent (adj.) [com- (con-), “together” + pet, “to seek” + -ent] – having sufficient, skill, knowledge, etc.; adequate
  Though expert plumbers may charge more, the extra cost is worth it because they are much more likely to be competent.
  Noun form: competence or competency
  Antonym: incompetent - lacking the skills or knowledge to do something properly
• impetuous (adj.) [im- (in-), "in" + petu, "to seek" + -ous] - characterized by sudden or careless action or emotion; moving with great force
  The impetuous investor sold stocks the second they started going down and bought them back as soon as they started going up. Noun form: impetuousness
  
• impetus (n.) [impetus, "a seeking force" (Latin)] – a stimulus or moving force; the momentum of a moving body
  Yolanda's impetus in applying for the job was her need to find a workplace nearer to her home.
  Adjective form: concordant – agreeing or harmonious
• perpetual (adj.) [per-, "throughout" + petu, "to seek" + -al] – continuing or lasting forever; lasting a very long time; continuing without interruption
  I have never known Hans to be sad or angry; he is a perpetually happy person.
  Noun form: perpetuity – eternity; something that lasts for a person's whole life; the state of being perpetual
  Verb form: perpetuate – to make perpetual; to preserve something or keep it going (i.e., a rumor)
  Other noun form: perpetuation
• petulant (adj.) [petu, "to seek" + -lant] – showing sudden impatience or irritation, usually due to a minor annoyance
  The petulant child refused to sit in the chair because it was not blue.
  Noun form: petulance
  
• propitious (adj.) [pro-, "toward" + pit, "to seek" + -ious] – favorable; indicating good in the future; inclined to do favors or forgive
  The sunny, warm morning was a propitious beginning to our beach trip.
  Noun form: propitiousness
  Verb form: propitiate – to appease or make more favorable
  Other noun form: propitiation – the act or process of appeasing or making more favorable

April 1, 2010

Root: CORD – heart

This week’s root is from the Latin word cordis, meaning “heart.” Nearly all English words that use this Latin root are metaphorical in meaning—that is, they refer not to a literal heart but to the “heart” (center) of something or to something that is good for the “heart” (such as harmony or agreement). One common example of this is record, which literally means “to remember,” for the heart used to be seen as the source of memory (as in the phrase “to know by heart”). Another example is according to, which literally means “in a manner agreeing with,” although we often use this phrase to mean “as said or written by.”

The related Greek root kardia is the source of most words that literally refer to the heart (the organ). This root gives us the words cardiac (related to the heart), cardiology (study of the heart), and cardio (referring to exercise that is good for the heart).

• accord (n.) [ac- (ad-), “toward” + cord, “heart”] – harmony; agreement
  The rival factions at last reached an accord after twenty years or bitter disputes.
  Verb form: accord – to be in harmony or agree; to make agree; to grant
  Adjective form: accordant – in harmony or agreement
  Synonym: accordance
• concord (n.) [con-, “with” + cord, “heart”] – an agreement between groups; unanimity; harmony; peace; a treaty
  Though the delegates were of diverse backgrounds, the were in total concord in their choice of candidate.
  Adjective form: concordant – agreeing or harmonious
• concordance (n.) [con-, “with” + cord, “heart” + -ance] – an alphabetical list of words contained in a book (such as the Bible); an alphabetical list of topics; agreement or harmony
  I learned from my concordance that the word “alas” appears in 16 different verses of the Bible.
• cordial (adj.) [cord, “heart” + -ial] – courteous, gracious, friendly, or warm; stimulating; heartfelt
  Michaela was very pleased with the cordial welcome she received in her first day at her new job.
  Noun form: cordiality
  Related noun: cordial – a stimulating medicine; anything that invigorates or exhilarates
• discord (n.) [dis-, “against” + cord, “heart”] – lack of harmony; disagreement; strife or war; a harsh noise
  The relationship between the roommates was one of discord and constant argument.
• discordant (adj.) [dis-, “against” + cord, “heart” + -ant] – harsh or disagreeable to the ear; disagreeing; incongruous
  In order to be a middle-school band instructor, one must be willing to tolerate the discordant sounds of beginner musicians.
  Noun form: discordance

March 25, 2010

Root :  PRIM(E) – first; highest, finest, bes

This week’s root is from the Latin word primus, meaning “first”, which itself is a form of the common Latin prefix pre-, meaning “before.”  One common word that you might not realize comes from this root that is prince, which comes from the old Latin word principis, a combination of primus and the root cip, which means “to take.” A prince is thus one who “takes first,” or the “first” in line to “take” the current monarch’s throne.

Two other words that you may have heard come from this root via Italian. First, a prima donna (literally “first lady”) is the leading female singer in an opera, or by extension, any diva or pompous woman. A dish that is served primavera is one that contains lots of spring vegetables, so it makes sense that primaveracomes from the Italian for “first spring.”

• primeval (adj.) [prim, “first” + œv(um), “age” + -al] – of or relating to the earliest ages of something
  Deep within the primeval forest, scientists have found life forms that have changed little in 300 million years.
• primitive (adj.) [prim, “first” + -it, “at” + -ive] – early in history or development, or reminiscent of an early era; uncivilized or unsophisticated
  When he was stranded on the island, George had to construct a dwelling using only primitive tools such as rocks tied to sticks.
  Noun form: primitiveness
• primogeniture (adj.) [primo, “first” + gen, “born” + -iture] – the right of first-born children to inherit the wealth and titles of their parents
  Because the practice of primogeniture was prevalent in the 1500’s, many younger children had to make their own way by joining the military or the church.
  Related noun form: primogenitor – an ancestor
• primordial (adj.) [prim, “first” + ordi, “begin” + -al] – original; relating to or existing at the beginning of something; elementary
  It took hundreds of millions of years for primordial aquatic creatures to evolve into animals capable of living on land.
• prissy (adj.) [prim + sissy] – excessively proper or correct in manner
  Renee was so prissy that she insisted on wearing a formal dress even when doing housework.
  Noun form: prissiness
• pristine (adj.) [pristinus, related Latin form of primus] – having its original purity; uncorrupted
  Though many nearby farms have been torn up and replaced with shopping centers, McDaniel’s Farm remains in close to its pristine state.

March 18, 2010

Root :  PRIM(E) – first; highest, finest, best

This week’s root is from the Latin word primus, meaning “first”, which itself is a form of the common Latin prefix pre-, meaning “before.”  The most common word that uses this root is prime (the adjective; the verb form is discussed below). Prime means “most important” or “first” and is used in many common phrases, including: prime number (an important type of number with only two factors), prime meridian (the first, and most important, line of longitude), prime rib (the “best” cut of meat from a cow’s ribs), and prime minister (the most important elected official in a parliamentary government).

Another common word from this root is primary, meaning “first,” “most important,” or “essential.”  Primates are the group that includes apes and their evolutionary relatives, including humans, chimpanzees, and monkeys.  They are so named because a primate is (supposedly) the “highest” or “most intelligent” type of animal.  Finally, you may have heard of the primrose flower, which gets its name from the fact that it is the “first” rose to bloom in each spring.

• prim (adj.) [prim, “finest”] – extremely tidy; excessively formal and proper
  The prim hostess insisted that none of her female guests be left alone with only men for company, claiming that improper scenarios might occur.
  Verb form: prim – to make a formal or pretentious expression
  Noun form: primness
• primacy (n.) [prim, “first” + -acy] – the state of being first in order, rank, or importance
  For 40 years, the primacy of Hank Aaron’s home run record went unchallenged.
• primal (adj.) [prim, “first” + -al] – first; original; basic; most important
  When rushing into battle, the soldier gave a primal shout reminiscent of his ancestor’s war cry.
• prime (v.) [prime, “first”] – to prepare something for a particular purpose; to supply with useful information
  The assistant primed his boss on the name of his next appointment and the nature of the meeting.
• primer (n.) [prim, “first” + -er] – a book for teaching children to read; any introductory text
  Juan wanted to learn how cars worked, so he read a primer on auto repair.

March 11, 2010

Root: PEL, PULS(E) – drive, push, beat

This week's root is from the Latin word pellere, meaning "to drive" and a related form of that root, pulsare, meaning "to beat, strike, or push." Interestingly, the word push itself is derived from this root; push is based on the Old French word poulser, meaning "to beat or push," which itself is based on the Latin pulsare.

Another word based on this root that you may have heard is rappel, which means "to descend a cliff or other steep surface using a rope." This word is French in origin and is analogous to the English word repeal (more on repeal below). It literally means "to push back or recall," and presumably was applied to this technique due to the fact that climbers would use it to "push back" to the place where they started.

• impel (v.) [im-, "against, into" + pel, "drive"] – to drive or move forward; to incite
  When I saw the sign at the bookstore advertising 50% off most books, I was impelled to go in.
  Noun form: impulse – the influence of a feeling or mental state; a sudden, involuntary desire to act
  Adjective form: impulsive – swayed by emotions or involuntary impulses
• propel (v.) [pro-, "forward" + pel, "drive"] – to drive or move forward; to urge onward
  The small wooden car was propelled by compressed air shot out of a canister.
  Noun form: propulsion – a force that propels; the act or process of propelling
  Adjective form: propulsive – driving something forward
• pulsate (v.) [puls, "drive" + -ate] – to expand and contract rhythmically; to beat or throb; to vibrate
  The surgeon watched with satisfaction as the transplanted heart began to pulsate.
  Noun form: pulsation – the act or process of pulsating
• repeal (v.) [re-, "back" + pe(a)l, "drive"] – to revoke, formally withdraw from, or annul
  The community leader led the campaign to repeal the discriminatory voting laws.
• repel (v.) [re-, "back" + pel, "drive"] – to drive or force back; to resist effectively; to keep out; to cause distaste
  The castle's defenders managed to repel the invaders after a long and fierce battle.
  Noun form: repellence – the act or state of being repelled
  Adjective form: repellent – causing distaste; driving back; serving to drive something away; resistant to
• repulse (v.) [ex-, "out" + pel, "drive"] – repel; to cause extreme distaste, dislike, or disgust
  Laura was repulsed by the rotten cherries and the maggots that were crawling over them.
  Noun form: repulsion – the act, state, or feeling of being repulsed; repellence
  Adjective form: repulsive – extremely disgusting or distasteful; repellent

March 4, 2010

Root: PEL, PULS(E) – drive, push, beat

This week's root is from the Latin word pellere, meaning "to drive" and a related form of that root, pulsare, meaning "to beat, strike, or push." The latter sense is the source of our word pulse, which is most commonly used to refer to a heartbeat. Another common word, appeal, also comes from this root (the spelling changed slightly along the way, of course). It literally means "to drive toward," though in English it has taken on the more metaphorical meaning of "to ask for help or consideration." Think of this as "driving" your wishes/needs/etc. toward someone. Similarly, something that is appealing to you causes you to "drive" toward it.

• appellation (n.) [ap- (ad-), "into, toward" + pel(l), "drive" + -ation] – a name, title, or designation (literally, a word that has been "driven into" you)
  Elmore Rual Torn disliked his given name and so, when he became an actor, he took on the appellation "Rip Torn."
  Adjective form: appellative
• compel (v.) [com- (con-), "together" + pel, "drive"] – to force or drive (someone) toward (something); to subdue or overpower
  Raymond's inappropriate behavior compels me to not invite him to my next party.
  Noun form: compulsion – a strong or irresistible desire to do something; the act of compelling
  Adjective form: compulsive – having to do with irresistible desires
• compelling (adj.) [com- (con-), "together" + pel(l), "drive" + -ing] – having a powerful or irresistible effect; overpowering
  Archibald found the 800-page novel to be so compelling that he regretted having to put it down in order to sleep and eat.
• compulsory (adj.) [com- (con-), "together" + puls, "drive" + -ory] – required; using force to constrain
  Though the "Introduction to Art" class was compulsory, Henry would have taken it anyway.
  Noun form: compulsoriness
• dispel (n.) [dis-, "off" + pel, "drive"] – to drive off in many directions or disperse; to cause to vanish
  Greta's fear of flying was dispelled only after successfully completing her first flight.
• expel (v.) [ex-, "out" + pel, "drive"] – to drive out or away; to cut off from membership (as of a school)
  The mayor choked noisily on his steak until Phil used the Heimlich maneuver to expel the offending piece of meat.
  Noun form: expulsion – the act or process of driving something out or away
  Adjective form: expulsive

February 25, 2010

Root: SURGE, SURRECT – rise

This week’s root is from the Latin word surgere, meaning “to rise up,” which is itself a contraction of the word surrigere, from the prefix sub- (meaning “up from below”) and the root regere (“to keep straight, to guide”).  We covered regere in a past lesson (other words from that root include direct, rectify, and erect).  The most obvious word from this root is surge, which means—you guessed it—“to rise up.”  Another common word from this root is resurrect, which literally means “to rise again.”

Another very common word comes from this root, though it is less obvious: source.  This word came from the Old French word sourse, which means “a spring; the rising or beginning point of a stream or river.”  That word is a form of the Old French verb sourdre, meaning “to spring up,” and is derived from the original Latin word, surgere.

• insurgent (n.) [in-, “in” + surge, “rise” + -ent] – one who rebels against an authority, often violently
  Throughout history, whenever a foreign invader has occupied a country, insurgents have fought to expel the foreigners and reestablish independent rule.
  Adjective form: insurgent – rebellious; surging or rushing in
  Related noun forms: insurgency – an act or campaign of rebellion
• insurrection (n.) [in-, “in” + surrect, “rise” + -tion] – an act or campaign of rebellion against a civil authority or government
  The leaders of the American Revolution knew that, if they went forward with their insurrection and were caught by the British, they would surely be hung.
  Adjective form: insurrectionary – related to an insurrection
  Related noun form: insurrectionist – one who advocates for or participates in an insurrection
• resurgent (adj.) [re-, “back, again” + surge, “rise” + -ent] – rising again, or tending to rise again; reviving
  The resurgent basketball team scored 20 points in a row to turn a large deficit into a narrow victory.
  Noun form: resurgence
• sortie (n.) [sortir, “to go out” (Old French), from surctire, “to rise up” (Vulgar Latin)] – an attack from a surrounded or besieged group upon its besiegers
  The knights defending the castle staged a surprise sortie to harass the surrounding army.
  Verb form: sortie – to go on a sortie
• splurge (v.) [mix of splash and surge] – to indulge in a luxury; to spend a lot of money on something unnecessary
  No matter how little money was in her bank account, Rhona would always splurge on a massage once a month.
  Noun form: splurge

February 18, 2010

Root: DIC, DICT – to speak or tell; to declare

This week’s root is derived from the Latin words dicere, meaning “to speak,” and dicare, meaning “to declare or devote.”  We have already discussed many common words that have a clear relationship to these roots.  There is one other word that comes from this root but whose relationship to it is less clear: ditto.  This word is from a Tuscan dialect (Tuscany is a region in Italy), in which it means “the said.”  It was originally used as an abbreviation for “in the said month or year”; its purpose was to eliminate unnecessary repetitions of dates in lists. Today, we use ditto in much the same way (though in a broader array of contexts), to replace an unnecessary repetition of what was just said or written.

Finally, three unusual vocabulary words utilize this root, but have already been covered in other editions of Words of the Week: malediction (a curse), benediction (a blessing), and jurisdiction (area of legal control).  Refer back to the lessons on the roots MAL(E), BENE, and JUR(E)/JURIS for more information on these words.

• syndicate (n.) [syn-, “same” + dic, “speak” + -ate] – a group of individuals or organizations that acts together as a unit; an criminal organization
  The group of newspapers formed a syndicate to share information, technology, and other resources.
  Verb form: syndicate – to sell creative content (such as a television show or newspaper column) individually to many different outlets
  Related noun form syndication – the act or process of syndicating
  Pronunciation note: The main noun is pronounced SIN-di-kit, while the verb is pronounced SIN-di-kate.
• valediction (n.) [vale-, “farewell” + dict, “speak” + -tion] – a farewell speech; an act of saying goodbye
  At her friend Tasha’s going-away party, Michaela gave a heartfelt and tearful valediction, recounting some of their best times together.
  Adjective form: valedictory – saying goodbye; relating to a farewell speech
  Related noun form: valedictorian – one who gives a valediction, especially at a graduation ceremony (usually the most outstanding student of the graduating class)
• vendetta (adj.) [vendetta (Italian), from vindicta (Latin), “vow of revenge”] – a bitter feud between two individuals or groups; a vow to avenge the death of a friend or loved one by killing those deemed responsible
  Mario has held a vendetta against his sister-in-law ever since she wrecked his car and refused to pay for the damage.
• vindicate (v.) [vin (vim), “force” + dic, “declare” + -ate] – to clear someone of an accusation or suspicion; to justify an action or statement; to get revenge for
  Though the police once considered Lily to be a suspect in the theft, she was vindicated by videotape that showed that she was miles away at the time of the crime.
  Noun form: vindication – the act or process of being vindicated
  Related noun form: vindicatory
• vindictive (adj.) [vin (vim), “force” + dict, “declare” + -ive] – disposed to revenge, vengeful; indicating a vengeful spirit
  Though Andre claimed to forgive Betty, he actually was spreading vindictive rumors about her behind her back.
  Noun form: vindictiveness

February 11, 2010

Root DIC, DICT – to speak or tell; to declare

This week’s root is derived from the Latin words dicere, meaning “to speak,” and dicare, meaning “to declare or devote.”  Two common English words use this root and the common prefix pre- (meaning “before” or “in front of”), but these words have very different meanings.  The first, predict, means literally “to tell before.”  The other, the grammar term predicate, means “that which is declared in front of other people.”  This meaning refers to the fact that the predicate of a sentence contains most of its meaning.  Confusingly, in English grammar, the predicate usually comes after, not before, the subject. In this case the pre- is not referring to words on a page, but rather words that are spoken to other people.  Hopefully, the origin of the word will become clearer when you understand the verb form (discussed below).

• edict (n.) [e(x)-, “out of” + dict, “declare”] – a formal announcement made by an authority figure; any authoritative announcement or command
  In response to the growing number of accidents caused by drivers who were distracted by texting, the city council issued an edict banning any use of cell phones while driving within city limits.
• indict (v.) [in-, “toward” + dict, “speak”] – to formally charge with a crime; to accuse of wrongdoing; to criticize
  The mobster was indicted on 11 counts of larceny but was never brought to trial because all the key witnesses mysteriously disappeared or refused to testify.
  Noun form: indictment – the act of formally charging someone with a crime; the document which states the details of the charges
  Pronunciation note: This word is pronounced in-DITE, not in-DIKT.
• interdict (v.) [inter-, “between” + dict, “speak”] – to forbid or prohibit, especially in a legal or religious setting
  Many students wondered if the principal could actually interdict their Dance Club simply because it did not have a faculty sponsor.
  Noun form: interdiction – the act of prohibiting or forbidding
  Related noun form: interdict – an act of legal prohibition; (Catholicism) a punishment involving the forbidding of certain sacraments to the offender
  Adjective form: interdictory
• predicament (n.) [pre-, “in front of” + dic, “declare” + -ament, “state of”] – an unpleasant and difficult situation; a type of logical or philosophical assertion
  The adventurer prided himself on being able to escape unscathed from even the direst predicament.
• predicate (v.) [pre-, “in front of” + dic, “declare” + -ate] – to proclaim or assert; to imply; to base an argument or strategy (on)
  Hans’ cautious investment strategy was predicated on his belief that it is better to make a consistent (but small) profit than to risk everything for the small chance of becoming rich.
  Pronunciation note: The verb form of this word is pronounced PRED-i-kate.  The noun form, discussed above, is pronounced PRED-i-kit.
  Adjective form: predicative
  Other noun form: predication – proclamation or assertion; basis for an argument

February 4, 2010

Root
DIC, DICT – to speak or tell; to declare

This week’s root is derived from the Latin words dicere, meaning “to speak,” and dicare, meaning “to declare or devote.”  Many common English words come from this root, among them dictionary, which is literally a reference that helps us “speak.”  Other common words from this root include verdict (literally, “declaration of truth”), addict (literally, “one who is devoted”), dedicate (“to devote oneself to”), and indicate (“to speak about; to point out”).  The word index, which is related to indicate, also comes from this root.  It literally means “something that points out information.” Along these lines, the “index finger” is the one that you use to “point” with.

Words
abdicate (v.) [ab-, “away from” + dic, “declare” + -ate] – to give up a claim, right, position of power, etc., especially in a formal manner
 After more than 20 years as the CEO of Microsoft, Bill Gates abdicated his position to concentrate on his charitable foundation.
Noun form: abdication – the act or process of giving up power
Related noun form: abdicator – one who has given up a position of power
Adjective form: abdicative

contradict (n.) [contra-, “against” + dict, “speak”] – to specifically deny; to state the opposite; to indicate an inconsistency
            The politician, who was known for frequently changing his opinion, contradicted his past positions several times during the debate.
Noun form: contradiction – a denial; a statement or action that is inconsistent with others from the past
Adjective form: contradictory

dictate (v.) [dict, “speak” + -ate] – to say aloud for the purposes of recording; to give orders
            The chairwoman dictated the fundraising letter as her secretary diligently wrote down every word.
Noun form: dictation – words that are spoken aloud so as to be recorded or written down; the act of speaking such words
Related noun form: dictator – one who holds absolute power (literally, “one who gives orders”)
Adjective form: dictatorial – of or related to a dictator; overbearing; unlimited or absolute (power)

diction (n.) [dict, “to speak” + -(t)ion] – style of speaking or writing; word choice; enunciation
            This sentence contains two diction errors: “Their going to be sure and arrive 10 minutes early.”

dictum (n.) [dictum, “something spoken” (Latin)] – an authoritative statement; a common saying
            The judge’s dictum required Lorraine to pay her landlord $500 plus the cost of repairing the broken window.

 

January 28, 2009

Root
CLUD(E), CLUS, CLAUS, CLOIS – close, shut

This week’s root is derived from the Latin words claudere, meaning “to close,” and clausus, meaning “shut.”  Many common English words come from this root, among them include (literally, “to close in”), exclude, (“to close out”), conclude (“to finish an argument or speech,” literally “to close together”), and closet (“closed-in space”).  The word close itself comes from this root, as well, as do related words like enclose (“to close in”) and disclose (“to reveal,” literally “to unclose”).

For the words that end in “-clude,” you can usually form an adjective form by replacing this ending with
“-clusive.”  This gives us a few other common words: exclusive, inclusive, and conclusive.

Finally, we have the common grammar term clause, which refers to a part of a sentence that has both a subject and a verb, and is thus “closed” off from adding a subject or verb.

Words
claustrophobia (n.) [claustrum-, “closed off space” (Latin) + phobia, “fear”] – an abnormal fear of being in enclosed or narrow places
Because of her claustrophobia, Frida’s palms would get sweaty and her head would ache whenever she used an elevator.
Adjective form: claustrophobic
Related noun form: claustrophobe – one who has claustrophobia

cloister (n.) [clois, “shut” + -ter] – a place for quiet religious thought, such as a monastery or convent; any quiet, isolated place; a covered walk, usually in a religious institution
            All the nuns in the convent were required to spend a few hours a week cleaning and beautifying the cloister.
Verb form: cloister – to confine in a monastery or convent; to confine in retirement
Adjective form: cloistral

occlude (v.) [oc- (ob-), “up” + clude, “close”] – to close; to stop up; to shut something in, out, or off
            The pipeline spilled over 100 gallons of oil before technicians were able to occlude the leak.
Adjective form: occlusive
Noun form: occlusion – the act or state of closing something off; blockage

preclude (v.) [pre-, “before” + clude, “close”] – to prevent something from happening; to make impossible
            Though he wanted to be a fighter pilot, his color-blindness precluded the Air Force from accepting him.
Adjective form: preclusive
Noun form: preclusion – the act or state of preventing something from happening

reclusive (adj.) [re-, “back” + clus, “close” + -ive] – shut off from the world (by choice); characterized by isolation
            The life of a monk is not always reclusive; many monks spend time in the surrounding community, doing charity work and promoting religious study.
Noun form: recluse – one who live apart from society, often for religious reasons
Other noun form: reclusion – the state or act of living apart from the world

secluded (adj.) [se-, “away from” + clud, “close” + -ed] – isolated or kept apart (by nature); withdrawn or solitary
            Many villages in the jungles of New Guinea are so secluded that Western anthropologists are not aware of their existence.
Verb form: seclude – to keep apart or isolate
Noun form: seclusion – solitude; the act or state of being kept apart

 

January 21, 2009

Root
CHRON(O) – time

This week’s root is derived from the Greek word khronos, meaning “time.”  This root was also used in a similar form in Latin: chronus.  Probably the most common word that derives from this root is synchronize, which literally means “to make happen at the same time.”  There are also many technical words that use words from this root, including chronometry (“the measuring of time”), dendrochronology (“the measuring of time using tree rings”), and chronograph (“an instrument that tells time”).

Words
anachronism (n.) [ana-, “against” + chron, “time” + -ism] – something that is not in its correct historical time; an error that assigns a person or thing to the incorrect era
The horse-drawn buggy is an anachronism in modern transportation.
Adjective form: anachronistic

chronic (adj.) [chron, “time” + -ic] – constant; habitual; continuing or recurring over a long period of time
            Louise has chronic arthritis in her hands, which makes it difficult for her to write or type.

chronicle (n.) [chron, “time” + -icle] – a historical record of events
            Ken Burns’ documentary The Civil War is a compelling chronicle of the lives of Americans during that difficult era.
Verb form: chronicle – to record in a historical record; to tell a story as if it is history

chronological (adj.) [chrono, “time” + -logy, “writing” + -cal] – arranged in order by time
            The novel Slaughterhouse-Five, by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. is not chronological; its protagonist becomes “unstuck in time” and lives his life out of order.
Noun form: chronology – a reference work arranged in order by time; the order in which events occurred; the science of arranging events in historical order

crony (n.) [Cambridge University slang, prob. based on khronios, “long-lasting”] – an old friend
            The new mayor appointed many of his cronies to well-paid government positions to reward them for their continued support.
Related noun: cronyism – the practice of favoring one’s friends over other, more qualified candidates, particularly in political appointments

 

synchronous (adj.) [syn-, “same” + chron, “time” + -ous] – happening at the same time or at the same rate
            Deciduous trees help to regulate a house’s energy costs by blocking the sun’s heat in the summer and allowing sunlight to warm the house in the winter.
Noun form: synchronicity – two events happening at the same time in such a way as to make them seem related
Antonym: asynchronous – not happening at the same time

January 14, 2009

Root
CAS, CAD, CID – happen, fall

This week’s root is derived from the Latin verb cadere, meaning “to fall.”  As with many roots, this one is used in English words in both literal and metaphorical senses.  In this case, the metaphorical sense of “something that falls” came to mean “something that happens.”  This connection between “happening” and “falling” can also be seen in the English verb befall, which means “to happen to.”

Many common words derive from this root, usually from the metaphorical sense of “happening.”  The most basic of these is the word case (in the sense of “a state of affairs, a single event,” not “a box for holding things”).  The word casual (“unplanned; just happening”) is a direct relative of case.  Another common word from this root is decay (literally, “to fall apart”).  Others include accident (literally, “something that happened to a person/thing”), incident (“one event as separate from other events”), occasion (“an important event”), and coincidence (“things that happen together”).   Finally, one more common word comes from this root, though you may not guess so from its spelling: chance.  This word comes from the Latin cadentia (“that which falls out”); it passed through French, becoming cheance, and then into English in its current form.

Be careful not to confuse words from this root with words from the root CIDE, meaning “to kill” (i.e., suicide, pesticide, patricide, etc.) or with words from the root CIS, CID, meaning “to cut” (i.e., scissors, decide, incisive, etc.).  These roots are both related to cadere, but their meanings are different enough that you should not just group them all together.

Words
cadaver (n.) [cadaver, “one who has fallen” (Latin)] – a dead human body
Louis’ least favorite part of his college Anatomy class was having to watch the dissection of a human cadaver.
Adjective form: cadaverous – pale; thin and worn-down; corpse-like

cadence (n.) [cad, “fall” + -ence] – a rhythmic falling of words, sounds, steps, etc.; a beat
            The actor William Shatner is famous for speaking his lines in an unusual cadence, with frequent pauses between words.

cascade (n.) [cas(c), “fall” + -ade] – a waterfall; something that resembles a waterfall
            The closet was so haphazardly packed with toys that when I opened it, the toys poured out in a plastic cascade.
Verb form: cascade – to fall in a pattern resembling a waterfall

casualty (n.) [cas, “fall” + -ual + -ty] – (literally, “one who has fallen”) any person or thing that is harmed as a result of an event; a member of the armed forces who has been lost to service due to death, wounds, capture, etc.; one who is injured or killed in an accident
            Penelope, who was laid off last week, is just the latest casualty of her company’s downsizing.

decadence (n.) [de-, “apart” + cad, “fall” + -ence] – the process of falling into an inferior condition; moral decay; excessive self-indulgence indicating misplaced values
            The politician bemoaned the decadence of modern society, claiming that the country needed to return to traditional values.
Adjective form: decadent – indicating a deterioration or decay, especially of morals; rich and indulgent (describing a food)

deciduous (adj.) [de-, “down” + cid, “fall” + -uous] – having leaves that fall off annually (describing a tree or shrub); not permanent
            Deciduous trees help to regulate a house’s energy costs by blocking the sun’s heat in the summer and allowing sunlight to warm the house in the winter.
Adjective form: valorous

January 7, 2009

Root
VAL(E), VAIL – strength, worth

This week’s root is derived from the Latin verb valere, meaning “to be of worth.”  Like with many other Latin roots, this root has influenced the names of people and places.  In ancient Rome, the name Valentinus (meaning “worthy”) was common.  Several martyred saints had this name (St. Valentine in English), one of whom was buried on February 14th, a day which first became a common feast day, and eventually evolved into our modern celebration of Valentine’s Day.

The common name Valerie (meaning “strong woman”) also derives from valere, as does the name of the city of Valencia, Spain (which in turn gave its name to the popular variety of oranges).

One word that does not come from this root is valedictorian, which literally means “farewell speaker,” from the Latin root VALE, meaning “farewell”.

Words
invalid (n.) [in-, “not” + val, “strength, worth” + -id] – a person who is too sick or weak to care for him- or herself; a sickly person
 Mother Teresa was known for, among other things, running a free hospital that cared for invalids.
Adjective form: invalid – unable to care for oneself due to illness or injury
Verb form: invalid – to make an invalid
Note: Do not confuse this word with its homonym, the adjective invalid that means “not valid” (see below).  The word defined here is pronounced IN-vuh-lid, while the homonym is pronounced in-VAL-id.

valence (n.) [val, “strength” + -ence] – the ability of a substance to interact with another; (Chemistry) the combining capacity of an atom determined by the number of electrons that it will lose, add, or share
            Oxygen has a valence of -2, meaning that it can gain 2 electrons in a reaction.

valetudinarian (n.) [vale, “strength” + -tud(e), “state of” + -inary + -an] – one who is overly concerned with his or her physical state, especially illnesses or ailments
            Howard only had a minor cold, but when I asked him to get the mail from the mailbox, he became a valetudinarian, claiming that he could not go outside because of his illness.
Adjective form: valetudinarian – overly concerned with one’s illnesses or ailments

valiant (adj.) [val, “strength, worth” + -iant] – bold and brave; worthy
            Genevieve may not have won the judo competition, but she did give a valiant effort.
Noun form: valiance

validate (v.) [val, “worth” + -id + -ate] – to confirm; to give official approval of
            My concerns about the snow were validated when we discovered that the road ahead was blocked by a large drift.
Noun form: validation – confirmation; proof; vindication
Adjective form: valid – well-founded; effective; legally binding
Alternate noun form: validity – the state of being valid

valor (n.) [val, “strength, worth” + -or] – boldness in the face of great danger; heroic bravery
            The commissioner praised the policewoman for her valor in tackling the gunman before he could shoot.
Adjective form: valorous

 

December 31, 2009

Words of the Week

Root
VAL(E), VAIL – strength, worth

This week’s root is derived from the Latin verb valere, meaning “to be of worth.”  In the original Latin, this word was often used to indicate strength as well.  Both uses are common in the English words that come from this root.  For instance, the word equivalent can mean either “worth the same amount” or “of equal strength.”  Other common English words from this root include value (“worth”) and evaluate (“to determine the worth of something”). 

Words
ambivalence (n.) [ambi-, “both” + val, “strength, worth” + -ence] – the state of having both positive and negative feelings toward something; uncertainty caused by these contradictory feelings
Marcia felt a great ambivalence about changing jobs; though she would be making more money at the new job, her commute would be much longer.
Adjective form: ambivalent

avail (v.) [a-, “of” + vail, “strength, worth”] – to be of use or value
            Henry’s extensive studying availed him little on the test, for he studied the wrong chapter.
Adjective form: available – able to be used
Idiom: to avail oneself of – to use to one’s advantage (They availed themselves of the chance to buy 3 tickets for the price of 2.)

convalesce (v.) [con-, “fully” + val, “strength” + -esce, “to grow”] – to grow strong again, especially after an illness or injury
            It took 2 weeks in the hospital and 3 months of physical therapy for Vaughn to convalesce after the car accident.
Noun form: convalescence – a period of recovery from an illness or injury
Other noun form: convalescent – one who is recovering from an illness or injury
Adjective form: convalescent – in the process of recovering from an illness or injury

countervail (v.) [counter, “opposite” + vail, “strength”] – to act against with equal force; to counteract; to offset
            Boris’ two knights served to countervail the presence of Bobby’s queen in the center of the board.
Adjective form: countervailing – opposing with equal force

prevail (v.) [pre-, “before” + vail, “strength”] – to be victorious due to greater strength; to succeed; to be widespread; to persuade
            The North eventually prevailed in the Civil War due to its superior resources and the able leadership of Abraham Lincoln.
Adjective form: prevailing – dominant

prevalent (adj.) [pre-, “before” + val, “strength” + -ent] – widespread; in general use
            The expression “Don’t have a cow, man” became prevalent soon after it debuted on an episode of The Simpsons in 1991.
Noun form: prevalence

December 24, 2009

Words of the Week

Root
REG, RECT – straight, right

The past two weeks, we discussed words that derived from the Latin verb regere, meaning “to rule.”  This word had two senses in Latin; one related to kings and other “rulers.”  The words from the previous lists all used this sense.  The other sense of regere was of straightness of measure (like a “ruler”) or correctness.  The words in this week’s list come from this latter meaning.

Among the common English words that use this sense are rectangle (literally, “straight-angle”), correct (“with rightness”), and direct (literally, “straight across,” since a direct route takes one “straight across” the area between two points).  Another word from this root is regular, which literally means “having straightness,” though we use it much more generally to mean “normal.”

Words
directive (n.) [di-, “across” + rect, “right” + -ive] – an order or official instruction
In Star Trek, the “Prime Directive” is the rule that states that no one should interfere with an alien civilization that has not attained space flight.
Adjective form: directive – giving explicit guidance

dirge (n.) [dirige, “direct”, from the Latin Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam, "Direct, O Lord, my God, my way in thy sight," from Psalm v:9, which was often spoken at funerals] – a song of mourning, particularly one played at a funeral; any sad song
            When the choir sang the dirge, nearly everyone in the church burst out in tears.
Adjective form: dirgeful

erect (v.) [e-, “out of” + rect, “straight’] – to build, put together, or put up; to bring into being
            The construction company managed to erect the skyscraper both on time and on budget.
Adjective form: erect – standing straight up or perpendicular

rectify (v.) [rect, “right” + -ify, “to make”] – to put right; to purify
            Hans rectified his earlier defensive mistake by scoring two goals and helping his team win the soccer match.
Noun form: rectification – the act or process of putting something right

rectitude (n.) [rect, “right” + -itude, “character”] – integrity; strongly moral character or actions
            It is difficult to be a politician and still maintain a semblance of rectitude; money and power tend to have a corrupting influence.

December 10, 2009

Words of the Week

Root
REG(N), RECT – king, rule over

This week’s root is related to the Latin word for king, rex.  You may recognize this word from the dinosaur “Tyrannosaurus Rex,” which literally means “king of the tyrant lizards,” or the name Rex (often used for dogs).   The root itself comes from the related Latin verb regere, meaning “to rule.”  A common word that uses this root is region, which literally means “the area ruled over by a king.”

Words
interregnum (n.) [inter-, “between” + regn, “king” + -um] –  (originally) the interval between the death of a king and the ascent of his successor; (today) any period without a normal authority; any pause or interruption in continuity
            My co-workers greatly enjoy the interregnum created whenever our boss goes on vacation, since they love being able to work without supervision.
Adjective form: interregnal

rector (n.) [rect, “rule” + -or] – the member of the clergy in charge of a local church; a university leader
Though the church itself is magnificent, its rector lives in a tiny, dilapidated house.
Other noun form: rectory – building adjoining a church, where a rector lives

regal (adj.) [reg, “king” + -al] – related to a king (or queen); befitting a king; grandly elegant
            Marcie had a regal bearing that inspired respect in all who knew her.

regalia (n.) [regal + -ia, “belongings”] – symbols, clothing, or objects related to royalty, such as crowns; the decorations or clothing specific to any group; any expensive or fancy clothing
            Pete’s regalia for the formal ball included a tuxedo, a tophat, and gold cufflinks.

regent (n.) [reg, “king” + -ent] – a person who rules a kingdom in the absence of the king or queen; a ruler; a university leader
            While Queen Elizabeth was away leading troops into battle, her trusted friend the Duke of Cornwall acted as regent.
Other noun form: regency – the rule of a regent
Adjective forms: regent (used after the noun, as in “prince regent”)

December 10, 2009

Words of the Week

Root
AC(U), ACR, ACERB – sharp, sour, bitter

This week’s root is based on the Latin word acer, which means “sharp.”  This root can be used both literally, to mean something that is physically sharp or sour, and metaphorically, to mean something that has a sour or bitter tone.  Many English words that come from this root can be used in both these ways. For instance, the common English word acid can be used to mean “something with a sour taste,” as in Chemistry (substances that are acidic, like orange juice, tend to taste sour), or “having a sharp or biting manner,” as in the phrase acid wit.

Words
acerbic (adj.) [acerb, “bitter” + -ic] –  sour in taste; harsh or severe in manner
            Marlena’s acerbic wit made half the partygoers laugh and the other half cringe.
Noun form: acerbity

acrid (adj.) [acr, “bitter” + -id] – sharp or biting in taste or smell; extremely hurtful or bitter
The acrid odor wafting from the vats where the lutefisk was being prepared convinced Garrison that he did not need to try the Scandinavian delicacy.
Noun forms: acridity, acridness

acrimonious (adj.) [acr(i), “bitter” + -mony, “quality or kind” + -ous] – stinging or bitter in nature, speech, behavior, etc.
            Jordy’s parents went through an acrimonious divorce, and now rarely talk to each other.
Noun form: acrimony

acumen (n.) [acu, “sharp” + -men, (noun suffix)] – keen insight; wisdom
            Wilma’s outstanding business acumen was admired by both her employees and her rivals.

acuity (n.) [acu, “sharp” + -ity] – sharpness or keenness of perception
            Visual acuity is perhaps the most important ability for an Olympic-caliber archer to possess.

acute (adj.) [acu(tus), “sharpened” + -e] –  sharp or severe in effect, intense; serious or critical; sharp or penetrating in insight or perception; (Geometry) having an angle less than 90 degrees
            During the second Iraq War, the oil shortage became so acute that gas prices rose to more than $4 per gallon in many parts of America.
Noun form: acuteness

exacerbate (v.) [ex-, “out of” + acerb, “bitter” + -ate] –  to increase the severity or bitterness of; to make worse; to irritate
            Lloyd’s awkward comments about his wife’s poor driving only served to exacerbate their dispute.
Noun form: exacerbation
Adjective form: exacerbating

 

November 26, 2009

Words of the Week

Root
SPIR(E) – breathe

This week’s root is from the Latin spirare, meaning “to breathe.” The most common word using this root is spirit, which literally means “something that breathes,” but is generally used metaphorically to refer to something that “gives life” rather than something that actually breathes.  This metaphorical sense has influenced many other words as well, such as inspire, which literally means “to breathe into,” but which we use as “to influence” or “to cause to happen.”  Another common word from this root is expire, which literally means “to stop breathing.”  We use expire in both its literal and metaphorical senses—we can say a person expires (meaning he dies) or that a coupon expires (meaning just that it is no longer valid).

Words
aspire (v.) [a(d)-, “toward” + spire, “breathe”] –  to aim for or seek ambitiously; to desire eagerly
            As a Little League baseball player, I aspired to play in for the Atlanta Braves one day.
Noun form: aspiration – a goal

conspire (v.) [con-, “with” + spire, “breathe”] – to plot or work together to achieve some (usually evil) goal
The three prisoners conspired to escape from prison by hiding in giant bags of laundry.
Noun form: conspiracy – an act of plotting to achieve an evil goal
Noun form: conspirator – one who engages in a conspiracy

perspire (v.) [per-, “through” + spire, “breathe”] – to sweat (think of sweating as water “breathing” through your skin)
            The extreme heat of the bright stage lights, combined with his nervousness at performing in front of a crowd, caused Alex to perspire uncontrollably.
Noun form: perspiration – sweat
Related noun form: antiperspirant –  a substance designed to reduce sweating

respire (v.) [re-, “again” + spire, “breathe”] – to breathe in and out (literally)
            Due to the extremely polluted air, citizens of Beijing respire through masks whenever they go outside.
Noun form: respiration – the act of breathing
Adjective form: respiratory – related to the physical act of breathing

suspire (v.) [sus-(sub-), “under” + spire, “breathe”] –  to sigh
            Veronica would suspire loudly whenever she came off-stage, as if to express her relief that the scene was over.
Noun form: suspiration –  the act of sighing

transpire (v.) [tran(s)-, “across” + spire, “breathe”] –  to occur or take place; to emit from the surface, as water vapor from the pores of the body
            Whatever transpires during tomorrow’s debates, I at least know that I have prepared as best I could.
Noun form: transpiration – the act of emitting something (a gas or waste product) through pores

 

November 19, 2009

Root
VER, VERIT – true

Last week, we covered the root VERB from the Latin verbum.  This week’s root looks similar, but it is important to note the difference in spelling (no “b” at the end) and in meaning.  The root VER is from the Latin verus, meaning “true.” One very, very common word comes from this root.  It is so common, in fact, that I used it twice in the last sentence: very.  For the last 500 years or so, we have used very to intensify the meaning of an adjective or adverb; originally, though, it had the narrower meaning of “truly” or “actually.” Another common word from this root is verify, which literally means “to make sure something is true.” 

There are a couple common foreign phrases that use this root as well.  First, if you ever study film, you may come across the film genre known as cinéma vérité, which is French for “true cinema.”  This genre consists of documentaries that are filmed without actors, scripts, or directorial control.  The other phrase is in vino veritas, which is Latin for “In wine there is truth.”  This saying is attributed to the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder; it derives from the fact that, in ancient Rome, it was thought that one could not lie effectively when one was drunk.
 
One common word that is not from this root is average, which is actually derived from an Arabic word related to shipping costs.

Words
aver (v.) [a(d)-, “toward” + ver, “true”] –  to declare to be true
            When he was called to the witness stand, Marshall averred that he saw the suspect enter the victim’s building 10 minutes before the attack.
Noun form: averment – a statement of truth

veracity (n.) [ver(ac), “true” + -ity] – habitual truthfulness; accuracy
Though Imogene’s veracity is questionable, her intent is obviously benign.
Adjective form: veracious – honest; true (note that this is not the same as voracious)

verisimilitude (n.) [ver(i), “true” + simili, “same” + -tude] – the appearance of truth; likelihood; something untrue that has the appearance of truth
            The set, which consisted of obviously two-dimensional trees and a moon hanging from visible strings, was definitely lacking in verisimilitude.
Adjective form: verisimilar

veritable (adj.) [verit, “true” + -able] – being truly or very much so
            After designing the Vietnam Memorial, I.M. Pei became a veritable superstar of architecture.

verity (n.) [verit, “true” + -y] –  truth; something that is true
            Several eyewitnesses disputed the verity of Bryce’s account of the car accident.

 

November 12, 2009

Root
VERB – word

This week’s root comes from the Latin word verbum, which originally meant “a word” and then later came to have the more specific meaning “a word that expresses an action or desire.”  It is the latter meaning which gives us our grammar terms verb and adverb (literally, “next to a verb”).  Generally speaking, however, the other English words derived from this root use the earlier, more general definition of “a word.”

In fact, the word word itself is related to this root, since word and verbum share a common Indo-European ancestor word.  This ancestor was probably pronounced something like werd or verd.

One fun word that comes from this root is cruciverbalist, which was coined less than 20 years ago, and means “one who enjoys crosswords.”  (The root cruci means “cross.”)

Words
proverb (n.) [pro-, “forward” + verb, “word”] –  a wise or popular saying that imparts advice
            “The early bird gets the worm” is my favorite proverb, since I am a morning person.
Adjective form: proverbial – related to a proverb or the subject of a proverb; related to something that is frequently mentioned

verbal (adj.) [verv, “word” + -al] – having to do with words or language; spoken rather than written
 His verbal skills were greatly improved after 10 sessions with the tutor from C2.
Verb form: verbalize – to speak; to read aloud from something written

verbatim (adj.) [verb, “word” + -atim] – corresponding word for word; in exactly the same words
            The teacher reported Mark to the principal because his essay was a verbatim copy of another student’s.
Adverb form: verbatim

verbiage (n.) [verb(i), “word” + -age] – manner or style of expressing something in words; wordiness
            The verbiage of Nia’s speech was impressive—she sounded much older and wiser than her 10 years.

verbose (adj.) [verb, “word” + -ose, “a lot”] –  using (too) many words
            Angie’s writing style was so verbose that it took her 10 pages to describe what a character had for breakfast.
Noun form: verbosity

November 5, 2009

Root
SENT, SENS – to feel, to think, to perceive

This root is derived from the Latin word sentire, meaning “to feel,” “to think,” or “to perceive.”  Although many common words come from this root, it is important to know that not all words that look or sound like this root actually come from this root.  Here are a few similar-looking words that are not derived from sentire:

• send and sent come from the Old English word sendan, meaning “to throw”
• absent, present, represent, and essential all come from the Latin esse meaning “is” or “to be”
• incense comes from the Latin incensum, meaning “something burnt”
• censor and census come from the Latin censer, meaning “to assess”

 

Still, lots of words do come from sentire, as we’ve learned the past few weeks.  Here are a few more:

Words
sensory (adj.) [sens, “to perceive” + -or + -y] – related to perception or the five traditional senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste)
            The county fair is a sensory extravaganza—there is music to listen to, acrobats to marvel at, and delicious food to taste and smell.
Related form: extrasensory – related to perception beyond the traditional senses, such as communicating with the dead or reading other people’s thoughts
Noun form: sensor – something, particularly an electronic device, that senses motion, light, etc.

sensual (adj.) [sens(u), “to feel” + -al] – related to or preoccupied with gratification of the physical senses; arousing; lacking moral restraints
The poetry of Keats is said to be very sensual, since it produces in the reader’s mind a variety of sights, sounds, smells, and feelings.
Noun form: sensuality – indulgence in physical pleasures

sentient (adj.) [sent(i), “to perceive” + -ent] – conscious; having the ability to perceive
            Though his colleagues thought that the stock market would go up forever, Mark had a presentiment that  a crash would occur.
Noun form: sentience – the ability to perceive; consciousness

sentinel (n.) [sent-, “to watch, to perceive” + -in + -el] –  a person or thing that watches or stands guard
            While his fellow soldiers slept, the sentinel patrolled the perimeter of the camp, searching for signs of the enemy.

sentry (n.) [short for sentrinel, a variant of sentinel] – a soldier who stands guard so as to prevent the passage of unauthorized persons or to watch for danger; a member of a guard or watch
            At the border checkpoint, the sentry checked my identification and searched my car for contraband.

October 29, 2009

Root
SENT, SENS – to feel, to think, to perceive

This root is derived from the Latin word sentire, meaning “to feel,” “to think,” or “to perceive.”  One very common word comes from this root, although it is not obvious due to an altered spelling: scent (as in something you “smell”—or “perceive”).  This word was originally spelled without the “c,” and no one knows exactly why it started being spelled with the “c” in the 18th century.  It is most likely an imitation of similar-looking but unrelated words like descent or science.

A couple other common words are based on this root, though their meanings are far enough from the root’s meaning that you may not realize their origins: sentence and sensational.  A sentence was originally only used to refer to the final ruling of a judge or other authority—in other words, it was an expression of the “thoughts and feelings” of the judge.  While this usage still exists, the most common meaning of the word today (“the verbal or written expression of a complete thought”) is much broader.

Today, sensational is often used as a synonym for “great,” as in “That was a sensational performance!”  This comes from the noun sensation, which in this sense refers to an event or entity that captures the attention of lots of people: “Miley Cyrus’ last album was a sensation in the pre-teen crowd.”  This sense of sensation comes from the original meaning (which you probably know): “something that is felt or sensed.”  So, a more literal definition of sensational might be something like “causing many people to feel.”

Words
consensus (n.) [con- “together” + sens, “to think” + -us] – the majority opinion; general agreement or harmony
            Thought the consensus was that the defendant was guilty, Lorraine continued to believe he was innocent.
Adjective form: consensus – generally agreed upon (“the consensus choice”)

consent (v.) [con-, “together” + sent, “thinking”] – (often followed by “to”) to agree to; to comply or allow
Though the TV network offered me the chance to win a million dollars, I would not consent to appear on its reality show.
Noun form: consent – permission, approval, or agreement
Adjective form: consensual – with both sides in agreement

presentiment (n.) [pre-, “before” + sentiment] – a feeling that something (especially something bad) is about to happen
            Though his colleagues thought that the stock market would go up forever, Mark had a presentiment that  a crash would occur.

sententious (adj.) [sent-, “thought” + -ent + -ious] – meaningful as well as concise; using many maxims or pithy sayings (sometimes used negatively)
            The almanacs of Benjamin Franklin contained not just useful meteorological data but also a wealth of sententious advice from Franklin’s alter-ego, “Poor Richard.”
Noun form: sententiousness

sentiment (n.) [sent(i)-, “feeling” + -ment, “product of”] – feeling or emotion, especially when refined or subdued; an attitude or opinion based on such emotion; the thought or feeling behind an action
            When I gave her the flowers, Willa said that she appreciated the sentiment, but that she couldn’t accept them because she was allergic.
Adjective form: sentimental – related to or dependent on emotion; overly emotional (to the point of weakness)
Verb form: sentimentalize – to view with emotion
Related Noun form: sentimentality – the state of being emotional, often overly so

October 22, 2009

Root
SENT, SENS – to feel, to think, to perceive

This root is derived from the Latin word sentire, meaning “to feel.”  Over time, this root became adapted to the related meanings “to think” and “to perceive.”  All three of these senses are reflected in common English words.  For instance, our word sense can take any of these three meanings, but the most common meaning relates to the ways in which we “perceive” the world—our senses of sight, hearing, etc.  If someone is sensitive, he or she “feels” very keenly (conversely, an insensitive person could be called “unfeeling”).  Something may be described as sensible if it is well “thought” out; alternatively, something could be nonsense or senseless if it is not well “thought” out.

Words
assent (v.) [as- (ad-), “toward” + sent, “to think”] – to agree with; to give in to
            Noriko assented to attend the dance with me after I promised to buy her flowers.
Noun form: assent – agreement

desensitize (v.) [de-, “remove” + sensitive + -ize] – to lessen someone’s ability to feel; to make indifferent or unaware
After playing countless hours of the shoot-‘em-up video game, Achilles became desensitized to gun violence.
Noun form: desensitization

dissent (n.) [dis-, “apart” + sent, “to think”] – difference in opinion, especially from the majority; disagreement
            The Sedition Act sought to outlaw any public dissent against Congress or the President.
Synonym: dissension – strong disagreement; discord
Verb form: dissent – to differ in opinion from the majority or an authority
Adjective form: dissenting

insensible (adj.) [in-, “not” + sensible] – incapable of feeling or perceiving; unaware or unconscious; imperceptible
            Some scientists consider people in a coma to be insensible to the outside world, though others argue that talking to or touching a coma patient triggers brain activity.
Noun form: insensibility
Note: This word is not the antonym of sensible!

resent (v.) [re-, “again” + sent, “to feel”] – to be displeased with as a result of a perceived injury or insult
            I resent the implication that I could not add without using a calculator!
Adjective form: resentful

October 15, 2009

Root
MO(U)NT, MIN(ENT), MEN – to stick out or be obvious; mountain or high point; to prod

This week’s root is derived from two related Latin words: minere, meaning “to stick out,” and mons, meaning “hill or mountain.”   One of the words that comes from this root is amenable, which means “agreeable” (more on that below).  Interestingly, though, two words that seem related to amenable are actually each from different roots.  The first of these is amen, which is the word that is said after prayers or other important statements in some religions to express agreement.  This word has its root in the Hebrew word amen, meaning “certainly.”  It’s perfectly alright if you mix up the roots of these words, however; their meanings are very similar.

Another word that seems to come from this root but does not is amenity, which means “something that provides comfort or pleasure,” such as a pool or free internet access at a hotel.  The root of amenity is the Latin amoenus, which means “pleasing.”  Again, this is fairly close to the meaning of both amen and amenable, so don’t worry too much about mixing up the roots.

Words
amenable (adj.) [a-, “toward” + men (min), “to prod; to drive” + -able] – agreeable; submissive; open to influence or persuasion
            The senator claimed to be amenable to altering the legislation, but would not agree to alter even the smallest provision.
Noun form: amenability

eminent (adj.) [e(x)-, “out of” + min, “obvious, noticeable” + -ent] – of well-known or distinguished rank or reputation; noteworthy; lofty
Dr. Weinstein is considered an eminent scholar in the field of microbiology; his research has even been nominated for a Nobel Prize.
Noun form: eminence – high rank or reputation; a high place; a title of honor, i.e. “Your Eminence”

imminent (adj.) [im- (in-), “into” + min, “to stick out” + -ent] – about to happen; impending; projecting or overhanging
            The umpires allowed the baseball game to begin despite the imminent thunderstorm looming on the horizon.
Noun form: imminence – the condition of being imminent; something that is about to happen

preeminent (adj.) [pre-, “before” + eminent] – distinguished before all others; superior
            Charles Dickens is universally considered the preeminent novelist of England’s Industrial Era.
Noun form: preeminence

prominent (n.) [pro-, “forward” + min, “to stick out” + -ent] – standing out so as to be easily seen; very noticeable; (of a person) leading, important, or well-known
            Harvey is a prominent Atlanta politician who is easily recognized due to his uniquely prominent ears, which stick out a full two inches from his head.
Noun form: prominence

promontory (n.) [pro-, “forward” + mont, “high point” + -ory] – a high point of land or rock that projects into a body of water; a high plateau that overlooks a lowland area
            Many lighthouses are situated on promontories so as to be visible to more ships.

October 8, 2009

Root
MO(U)NT, MIN(ENT), MEN – to stick out or be obvious; mountain or high point

This week’s root is derived from two related Latin words: minere, meaning “to stick out,” and mons, meaning “hill or mountain.”   Since a mountain definitely “sticks out” from the landscape, it is easy to see how these words are related.  Indeed, our word mountain is derived directly from this root, as are mount (“to pile up; to climb up on”) and mound (“a small hill”).  Another common word that comes from this root is amount; if you imagine an amount to be a “pile” or “hill” of something, you can see the original sense of this word.

Additionally, the common word prom (as in the formal dance) is a shortened form of promenade (see below). 

Words
menace (n.) [minac, “jutting out; threatening”] – something or someone that threatens harm
            Weeds are an ever-present menace to home gardens.
Verb form: menace – to threaten or endanger
Adjective form: menacing – dangerous

mountebank (n.) [montimbanco, “one who mounts a bench” (Italian), referring to salesmen who would stand on benches to get the attention of a crowd] – a charlatan or quack, often one who sells medicines in public using trickery and fanciful claims
The mountebank claimed that his baldness remedy would restore a full head of hair in only 24 hours.

paramount (adj.) [par- [per-], “thoroughly” + a[d]-, “toward” + mount “high point”] – of greatest importance; supreme; above others in rank or authority
            Though Jemaine hoped to do many things on his vacation to Italy, seeing the Sistine Chapel was paramount.

promenade (n.) [pro-, “forward” + minare (related to menace), “to drive outward”] – a place for walking; the march of guests into a formal ball; a formal dance
            In 19th-century London, many wealthy citizens spent their Saturday afternoons strolling through promenades near the Thames river.
Verb form: promenade – to walk in a public place; to take part in a dance (such as a square dance)

surmount (v.) [sur-[super-], “above” + mount, “high place”] – to get or be on top of; to prevail over
            Before Bret could finish the marathon, he had to surmount the huge incline known as “Heartbreak Hill.”
Adjective form: surmountable – able to be defeated
Adjective Antonym: insurmountable – impossible to defeat

tantamount (adj.) [tanto-, “so much” (Italian) + amount] – equivalent in value or effect
            The candidate’s speech was tantamount to a concession of defeat, though he claimed to hold out hope of victory.

October 1, 2009

Root
POSS, POTEN(T) – power(ful); ability

This week’s root is derived from the Latin word potere, meaning “to have power.”  Indeed, the English word “power” is derived from this root, though it has undergone many spelling changes over time.  In Middle English, it was poere or pouere; before that, in Anglo-French, it was poueir or poer.  These were formed from the Old French povoir and podir, which were from the original Latin potere.  “Power” is a great example of how a word evolves over time and as it spreads to other languages.

In fact, some common words in foreign languages are also based on this root.  The Spanish word poder and the French word pouvoir, both meaning “to be able to,” followed similar paths from their common root potere.

Words
potent (adj.) [potent, “powerful”] – powerful or strong; persuasive (as an argument)
            The new energy drink was so potent that I was able to stay up all night after drinking just half a bottle.
Noun form: potency – power; might

potentate (n.) [potent, “powerful” + -ate, “person”] – a supreme ruler such as a king; a person with great power
 King Richard disliked dealing with other potentates, often leaving trade and war negotiations to his advisers.

prepossessing (adj.) [pre-, “before” + possess, “have power over” + -ing] – engaging or attractive; impressive
            Marie’s prepossessing smile and confident posture proved very useful in impressing job interviewers.
Antonym: unprepossessing – unremarkable; initially unimpressive; nondescript
Verb form: prepossess – to cause to prejudge (usually favorably); to impress favorably beforehand
Noun form: prepossession – a prejudice, usually in favor of something

potentiality (n.) [potential, “able to happen” + -ity, “thing”] – possibility; something that could happen
            Some environmental scientists warn of the frightening potentiality of “mega hurricanes,” huge storms that would be capable of wiping out entire cities.

puissant (adj.) [puiss [posse], “powerful” (French) + -ant] – powerful; mighty
            The puissant knight defeated each of his competitors with ease, winning the joust—and with it, a kiss from the princess.

More on this root next week!

September 24, 2009

Root
POSS, POTEN(T) – power(ful); ability

This week’s root is derived from the Latin word potere, meaning “to have power.”  Two forms of this word, potentum (“powerful”) and posse (“be able”) are used as the root words for many English words.  A few of the more common of these are potential (“ability to do something in the future”), possible (“able to be done; within one’s power”), and possess (“to have power over”).

Words
dispossess (v.) [dis-, “away from” + poss, “power” + -ess] – to take forcibly; to oust or banish
            The general lived in the conquered castle for only two weeks before the opposing army dispossessed him.
Noun form: dispossession – the act of dispossessing

impotent (adj.) [im-, “not” + potent, “powerful”] – having no power; utterly unable; lacking strength; unable to have children (used especially for men)
Though Roger made a fortune by selling his advertising agency, the consequence of the sale left him nearly impotent to influence the direction of the company.
Noun form: impotence

omnipotent (adj.) [omni-, “all” + potent, “powerful”] – having unlimited power
            Napoleon Bonaparte styled himself as the omnipotent ruler of all Europe, although his influence was in fact quite limited outside of France.
Noun form: omnipotence

plenipotentiary (n.) [pleni-, “fully” + potent, “powerful” + -iary, “person”] – a person invested with the full power to negotiate or conduct business on behalf of a country or another person
            Before he was President, John Adams served as a plenipotentiary of the newly formed United States to France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain.
Adjective form: plenipotentiary – possessing full power (on behalf of another)

posse (n.) [short for posse comitatus, “the force of the country” (Latin)] – a group armed with legal authority; a gang involved in illegal activities; any small group with a common task
            The sheriff formed a posse to track down the kidnappers, who had fled into the desert outside of town.

More on this root next week!

September 17, 2009

Root
TEND, TENT, TENS – to stretch

The past two weeks, we’ve been discussing this root, from the Latin word tendere, meaning “to stretch.”  Though it is a very common root, it is important not to mistake it for a couple other fairly common roots.  One of these a root we discussed earlier this year, TEN(T), -TAIN, which means “to hold,” from the Latin tenere.  Though words from this root usually are not spelled with the TEN characteristic of words derived from tendere, there are a few words that can be confusing: tenet (a belief that one “holds”), tenor (tone that one “holds” in a conversation), tenacious (“holding tightly”), etc.  Note that in these words, a vowel usually follows the TEN pattern, whereas in words based on tendere, a consonant usually follows (usually, D, T, or S).

Another, less common, root may be even more confusing.  The Latin root temptare, meaning “to feel, try, or test,” occasionally undergoes a spelling change in English words; it is usually spelled TEMPT (as in the words attempt, temptation, and contempt), but sometimes is spelled TENT.  Two words that use the more confusing spelling are tentative (with a need to “feel out” a situation before moving forward) and tentacle (literally, a “feeler”).  Interestingly, since tentacles also “stretch out” in the act of feeling, you would likely be able to guess the meaning of this word even if you used the wrong root!  Indeed, tentacle is very close in meaning to a word that is actually derived from tendere, tendril (more on that below).

Words
tendentious (adj.) [tend, “to stretch” + -en(cy) + -tious] – with a definite tendency or bias in one direction
            Though the poll claimed to be non-partisan, the wording of its questions was obviously tendentious.
Noun form: tendentiousness

tender (v.) [tend, “to stretch” + -er] – to make a formal offer of; to present for approval
After the company’s third straight poor quarter, the CEO tendered his resignation to the board of directors.
Noun form: tender – a formal offer; the act of tendering

tendon (n.) [tend, “to stretch” + -on (through a combination with the Greek tenon, “sinew”)] – a cord of dense, tough tissue that connects a muscle with a bone or other part
            The Achilles tendon, which connects the heel of the foot to the muscles of the leg, is so named because this is where the one weakness of the Greek hero Achilles was located.

tendril (n.) [tend, “to stretch” + -(e)r + -il (from French for “little”)] – a twisting, threadlike part of a plant (such as grapes) that is used to grasp an object for support; anything long, slender, and curling
            Clara had a nervous habit of twirling a tendril of her hair around her finger over and over.
Adjective form: tendrilous

tensile (adj.) [tens “to stretch” + -ile] – of or related to tension; capable of being stretched or drawn out
            Rubber bands lose their tensile strength slowly over time, particularly if exposed to dry conditions.
Noun form: tensility

September 10, 2009

Root
TEND, TENT, TENS – to stretch

This week’s root is derived from the Latin word tendere, meaning “to stretch.”  As we studied last week, this is a very important root in English, carrying with it a variety of interpretations of the meaning of “stretch”. Another common word that uses this root is tender, which when used as an adjective describes something that is literally or metaphorically “stretchable”—as in tender meat, which comes apart easily, or tender feelings, which are directed outward toward others.  This root also gives us tense and tension, which describes situations in which ropes, muscles, or (metaphorically) nerves are “stretched” to their limit.

More literally, this root also gives us the word tent, which is so named because its fabric is “stretched” over and across poles to make a shelter.

Words
ostentatious (adj.) [o(b)s-, “over” + tent, “to stretch” + -atious] – showing of wealth or importance in order to impress others
            The football player enjoys displaying his ostentatious automobile collection, which consists of 30 cars, many worth more than $100,000.
Noun form: ostentation – a conspicuous show of wealth or importance
Other noun form: ostentatiousness

portend (v.) [pro- [por-], “forward” + tend, “to stretch”] – to foreshadow (like an omen); to signify
The failure of renowned brokerage Bear Stearns portended the worldwide financial collapse of 2008.
Noun form: portent – an omen or instance of foreshadowing
Adjective form: portentous – with foreshadowing

pretense (n.) [pre-, “before” + tens(e), “to stretch”] – a false show of something; make-believe; insincerity
            The politician’s anti-corruption crusade was but a pretense designed to hide his own corrupt practices.

pretentious (adj.) [pre-, “before” + tent, “to stretch” + -ious] – assuming (often without merit) dignity or importance
            Though she grew up in Alabama, Lisa spoke with a pretentious British accent after studying in London for a semester.
Noun form: pretension – an act of claiming (often indirectly) superiority of some kind; the claim itself
Other noun form: pretentiousness

subtend (v.) [sub-, “under” + tend “to stretch”] – to surround or mark the boundary of; (Math) to extend under or be opposite of (The arc subtends the interior angle of the circle.)
            Bright yellow or orange flower petals subtend the center of the sunflower, which contains the seeds.

More on this root next week!

September 3, 2009

Root
TEND, TENT, TENS – to stretch

This week’s root is derived from the Latin word tendere, meaning “to stretch.”  This is a very important root in English, carrying with it a variety of interpretations of the meaning of “stretch”.  For instance, the word pretend refers to “stretching” the truth, and tend (as in “She tends to wake up before dawn.”) implies that a quality is “stretched” across many possible occasions.  One word that uses this root in a fairly straightforward way is extend, meaning “to stretch out from.”

Two other words both have a literal meaning of “to stretch toward,” though their usages differ.  One is attend, which is used to mean “to give an effort to be somewhere or do something.” Similarly, intend has come to mean “to plan or indicate.” 

Many other words are formed from these words, including extent, tendency, extensive, intense, attention, and intent.  Can you tell what these words literally mean, and how this meaning differs from their current usage?

Words
contend (v.) [con-, “together” + tend, “to stretch”] – to struggle in opposition; to argue earnestly
The rise in gang violence is too much for poorly-funded police departments to contend with, contends the social scientist in her study of inner-city crime.
Noun form: contention – a rivalry or contest; a firm statement in a debate
Other noun form: contender – one who strives against others to achieve a goal

détente (n.) [de-, “away from” + tent(e), “to stretch” (French)] – a relaxing of tension through negotiation, especially between nations
            After years of feuding, the sisters finally agreed to a détente when their father became ill.

distend (v.) [dis-, “apart” + tend, “to stretch”] – to expand by stretching; to expand, swell, or bloat
            Kylie’s gum bubble distended until it was nearly as big as her head, and then it popped.
Adjective form: distended
Noun form: distension

double entendre (n.) [double + entendre, “intention” (French)] – a double meaning; a word or phrase that has more than one meaning, depending on the context (especially when one meaning is risqué)
            Though every word in Marcus’ speech was technically appropriate, his many double entendres made some of the audience members uncomfortable.

ostensible (adj.) [o(b)s, “on” + tens, “stretch” + -ible, “able”] – seeming to be the case, but not being so; pretended; obvious
            Renata’s ostensible reason for visiting was to borrow some sugar; in reality, she wanted to check on her friend’s fragile mental condition.
Adverb form: ostensibly

More on this root next week (and the week after)!

August 20, 2009

Root
COSM – world, universe; arrangement

This week’s root is derived from the Greek word kosmos, meaning “orderly arrangement” or “ornament, decoration.”  This sense gave us the common words cosmetic (“something to aid in a skilled decoration or arrangement”) and cosmetology (“the study of skilled arrangements (of a person’s appearance).”

Pythagoras (the same guy who gave us the Pythagorean theorem) used kosmos to mean “the universe” or “all creation,” which is sometimes narrowed to mean simply “the world” in the English usage of the root.  This meaning gives us the word cosmonaut, meaning literally “one who sails through the universe,” which became the Russian alternative to our word “astronaut.”

Words
cosmic (adj.) [cosm, “universe” + -ic] – of or related to the universe; vast; beyond human comprehension
The concept of karma states that there is a sense of cosmic justice in which individuals eventually, and in unforeseen ways, bear the consequences of their decisions (good or bad).

cosmography (n.) [cosm, “universe” + graph, “writing” + -y] – a description or representation of the universe (or a portion of it)
            The Copernican cosmography—with the sun at the center and the Earth revolving around it—revolutionized the way we think about the universe.
Adjective form: cosmographic

cosmology (n.) [cosm, “universe” + -ology, “study of”] – the study of the origin, history, and structure of the universe
            Modern cosmology has yet to provide a definitive explanation for the origin of the universe, though the Big Bang theory currently has the most supporters.
Adjective form: cosmological
Related noun form: cosmologist – one who studies the origin, history, and structure of the universe
Alternative noun form: cosmogony

cosmopolitan (adj.) [cosm, “world” + polit, “citizen” + -an] – worldly; at home in any locale; free from local prejudices
            Bill, who had never left his home state, felt almost embarrassed to listen to the tales of his cosmopolitan friend, who had just returned from a trip to Europe and Africa.
Noun form: cosmopolitan – one who has experienced the world; literally, “a citizen of the world”

cosmos (n.) [kosmos, “universe” (Greek)] – the physical universe; a complete, orderly system
            To Bella, the fact that no alien life forms have contacted us is definitive proof that humans are alone in the cosmos.

macrocosm (n.) [macro-, “large” + cosm, “world”] – the universe considered as a whole; the total structure of something; a larger representation of a small thing with a similar structure
            Though a million dollars seems like a lot of money to most people, it is but a tiny amount in the macrocosm of the U.S. budget.
Adjective form: macrocosmic

microcosm (n.) [micro-, “small” + cosm, “world”] – a little world; a smaller representation of a large thing with a  similar structure
            The more he studied the ant farm, the more Edward came to see it as a microcosm of the world around him, as every individual had an important task to perform.
Adjective form: microcosmic

Check out previous Words of the Week »

August 13, 2009

Root
CORP(US) – body (of a person)

This week’s root is derived from the Latin corpus, meaning “body.”  In many cases, the words based on this root refer to an actual human body (or the person who uses it).  An example of this is the word corpse, meaning “a dead body.”  Some of the words, however, use “body” in the more general sense of “a united group of people or items.”  It is this sense that gives us the words corporation (“a group of people united in one body”) and incorporate (“to take in or include as parts of a body”).  English has also incorporated several words and phrases directly from other languages.  One of these is leprechaun, which is based on the Old Irish word luchorpan, meaning “little body.”  As occasionally happens when foreign words join English, some sounds were switched in the transition (in this case the “c”, “p”, and “r” sounds).  We will see a couple other instances of foreign phrases using this root below.

Words
corporeal (adj.) [corpor, “of the body” + -eal] – related to the physical body; tangible
Greta disdained philosophy, preferring to study corporeal topics like biology and chemistry.
Noun form: corporeality
Antonym: incorporeal – without physical presence; insubstantial

corps (n.) [corp(u)s, “body”] – a group of people acting together—often a military group
            The president was often impatient with the press corps, particularly those reporters who repeated questions that had already been answered.
Note: This word is pronounced “core”; the “ps” is silent (thanks to the French)

corpulent (adj.) [corp, “body” + -ulent, “full of”] – fat
            The chef’s love of food was such that he remained corpulent no matter how much he exercised.
Noun form: corpulence

corpus (n.) [corpus, “body”] – a complete collection of writings or other works; a (dead) body
            The scholar had read Shakespeare’s entire corpus, yet had little idea of the playwright’s personality.

esprit de corps (n.) [French for “spirit of the body”] – a sense of unity developed by a group of people working toward a common purpose
            The neighborhood watch group lacked money and resources, but nonetheless fought crime with notable esprit de corps.

habeas corpus (n.) [Latin for “(you should) have the body”] – a writ requiring a person to be presented before a judge soon after his or her arrest, to prevent unfair imprisonment
            Even the worst of criminals are guaranteed to be imprisoned for no more than 24 hours, thanks to every American’s right of habeas corpus.

August 6, 2009

Root
SAL, S(A)(U)LT – to leap; to dance

This (and last) week’s root comes from the Latin salire, meaning “to jump or leap.”  In addition to the words we discussed last week, there is one more common word that may (or may not) come from this root: salmon (as in the type of fish).  While the original source of this word is not well established, it certainly makes sense that salmon, a species known for its ability to leap out of the water so as to swim upstream to spawn, would get its name from a root meaning “to leap.”  Regardless of the source of salmon, you can still use it as a way of remembering what the root sal- means.

Words
salient (adj.) [sal-, “leap” + -ient] – prominent or easily noticeable; projecting outward; leaping
Cyrano’s nose was easily his most salient feature, as it projected more than 4 inches from his face.
Noun forms: salience or saliency

sally (n.) [sal, “leap, rush forward” + -ly] – a rushing forth, often off the main course (as a military unit advancing on an enemy); an outburst; a clever or witty remark
General Larkin sent his troops on a sally over the hill and through the valley beyond.
Verb form: sally – to set out; to rush forward

saltation (n.) [sal(ta), “leap” + -tion] – the act of leaping or jumping; non-continuous advancement (“by leaps”)
            Rita was so excited that, rather than walk, she performed saltations down the street.
Verb form: saltate

sauté (v.) [sauté(r), “to jump” (French)] – to cook in a pan with a small amount of fat (with the fat “jumping” in the pan due to the heat)
            Alton sautéed the vegetables with some olive oil, salt, and pepper for a light and tasty meal.
Noun form: sauté – a dish of food cooked in a pan with fat (butter, oil, etc.)
Adjective form: sauté – cooked in a pan with a small amount of fat

somersault (n.) [somer (sombre), “over” (French) + sault, “to leap”] – an acrobatic movement in which the body tumbles end over end (either forward or backward); a complete reversal of opinion
            The diver performed the triple somersault flawlessly but entered the water at the wrong angle and received a poor score.
Verb form: somersault

July 23, 2009

Root
VAN, VAC(U) – empty; bragging

These roots come from the related Latin roots vacuus (meaning “empty”) and vanus.  The latter root had a dual meaning: firstly, “empty,” and by extension, “boastful, self-centered.”  One who bragged often was seen as being “empty” of mind.  Some common words that come from these roots include vacation (literally, “absence” or “emptiness”), vanish (“to make empty”), and void (“emptiness”).  Finally, there is the word vacuum, which in science refers to a space that has no matter whatsoever (and is thus empty); vacuums are unstable, since matter (and gases especially) expand to fill empty space.  A vacuum cleaner works by creating a vacuum and allowing the air outside the machine to expand into the machine so as to fill the empty space; this rush of air takes the dirt and debris along with it.

Words
evacuate (v.) [e-, “out of” + vac, “empty” + -ate, “to make”] – to leave or remove for reasons of safety; to leave empty
When the fire alarm goes off, students should calmly and quietly evacuate the building and gather in the parking lot.
Noun forms: evacuation – the process of evacuating
                        evacuee – one who must evacuate

evanescent (adj.) [e-, “out of” + van, “empty” + -esce, “to grow” + -ent] – fleeting; coming and going quickly
Friday’s unseasonably cool temperatures were welcomed by all, though the cool spell proved evanescent when temperatures shot back up to 95 the next day.
Verb form: evanesce – to fade away quickly
Noun form: evanescence – fleetingness

vacant (adj.) [vac, “empty” + -ant] – empty or unoccupied; not in use; lacking thought
            Though he was in a hurry, Rob had to wait 15 minutes for one of the bathroom stalls to become vacant.
Noun forms: vacancy – the state of being vacant; an unoccupied room at a hotel

vacate (v.) [vac, “empty” + -ate, “to make”] – to give up or surrender; to make empty
The police forced Darbi to vacate her apartment because she had not paid rent in 6 months.
Noun form: vacation

vacuous (adj.) [vacu, “empty” + -ous] – lacking originality or intelligence; empty or purposeless
            Ophelia was a beauty, but her vacuous personality prevented her from ever being truly successful.
Noun forms: vacuity

vain (adj.) [va(i)n, “bragging”] – excessively proud of or concerned about one’s appearance; conceited; hopeless or futile
            Micah was so vain that he posted dozens of pictures of his shirtless body on the Internet.
Noun form: vanity

vaunted (adj.) [va(u)n(t), “bragging” + -ed] – frequently or excessively praised
Though critics adored The Dark Knight, Kyle felt that the vaunted film was pretentious and boring.
Verb form: vaunt – to boast (of)

July 16, 2009

Root
LAT(E), LATERAL – side; wide

This week’s root comes from the Latin word latus, meaning “brought” or “carried.” In addition to this meaning, it has also acquired another sense, “side.”  You are probably familiar with this root from school, since we get the words quadrilateral (“four-sided”) and latitude (“wideness”) from this root.  You may also be familiar with the word lateral, which refers to side-to-side movements, such as lateral motion.  The word lateral also refers to a pass in football that does not move forward (hence, “side to side”).  The words unilateral (literally, “one-sided”) and multilateral (literally, “multi-sided”) are also derived from this root.

Also, don’t forget the normal meaning of latus, “to bring”—a few of the words below use this sense as well.

Words
ablative (n.) [ab-, “away” + lat, “to carry” + -ive] – a case in certain languages (notably Latin) that indicates a place from which someone or something originates
The ablative case in Latin is used to indicate where a person is from, as with the word Troiā, which means “from Troy.”
Adjective form: ablative – related to the ablative case

ablate (v.) [ab-, “away” + late, “to carry”] – to remove or dissipate through melting, evaporation etc.
Some plastic surgeons ablate patients’ skin using chemicals in an attempt to remove or obscure scars.
Adjective form: ablative – related to the act of ablating
Noun form: ablation

collateral (n.) [col-, “together” + lateral, “side”] – property pledged in order to secure a loan (in the event that the debtor cannot repay the loan)
When Paul could not repay his loan, the bank seized his car, which he had pledged as collateral.
Adjective form: collateral – accompanying; secondary or indirect (Though the missile was intended for the opposition headquarters, several buildings in the surrounding neighborhood suffered collateral damage.)

dilate (v.) [di-, “apart” + late, “wide”] – to grow wide or expand
            The eye drops that the optician put in her eyes caused Renee’s eyes to dilate drastically.
Noun form: dilation
Adjective form: dilated

oblate (n.) [ob-, “toward” + late, “bring”] – a person living in a monastery who has not taken vows
            It was once a common practice for fugitive criminals to become oblates, hiding out with monks until the authorities gave up their search.
Related noun form: oblation – something offered in worship; the act of offering something in worship

oblate (adj.) [ob-, “toward” + late, “side”] – flattened at the poles (like a ball that has been squeezed from either end)
Though most people think of the Earth as being a perfect globe, in fact it is slightly oblate at the North and South Poles.

July 9, 2009

Root
LAT(E) – to bring

This week’s root comes from the Latin word latus, meaning “brought” or “carried.”  This word is the past participle of the very common Latin verb ferre, which means “to bring or carry” and gives us such common words as ferry, transfer, refer, prefer, infer, and different.  Despite being only a form of another word, latus has given English several common words, including translate (literally, “bring through”) and relate, (literally, “bring back”).

This week’s root also has another meaning, “side”; we’ll talk about a few words that use this meaning in next week’s lesson.

Words
collate (v.) [col-, “together” + late, “bring”] – to arrange in the proper sequence (as with the pages of several sets of copies)
I think you made a mistake when you collated this report—page 4 comes after page 7.
Noun form: collation
Adjective form: collative

correlate (v.) [cor-, “together” + re-, “back” + late, “bring”] – to establish a mutual relationship; to have a mutual relationship
The study successfully correlates a high-sugar diet with an increased likelihood of diabetes.
Noun form: correlation – a mutual relationship
Adjective form: correlative

elated (adj.) [e-, “out of” + lat, “bring” +-ed] – marked by high spirits
            After realizing that she had won the swim meet, Nancy was elated.
Noun form: elation – great joy, pride, or happiness
Verb form: elate

legislate (v.) [legis, “law” + late, “bring”] – to make law
            Though many are upset with the President’s lack of action on the issue, they forget that the President cannot legislate, only approve and execute laws that Congress has already passed.
Noun forms: legislator – a person who makes law, such as a congressperson or city council member
legislation – a potential or actual article of law
Adjective form: legislative – related to the creation of laws

prelate (n.) [pre-, “before” + late, “bring”; literally, “one to whom things are brought”] – a high-ranking church member, such as a bishop or abbot
The gathering of Catholic prelates included over twenty bishops and two archbishops.

July 2, 2009

Root
LEG(E) – to choose (for an official position), to gather

This week’s root comes from a group of Latin roots based on the Latin legare, meaning “to choose or send with a commission.”  This root often conveys a sense of official recognition or honor.  A common word that stems from this association is privilege, which literally means “an individual honor or right.”  (The other root in privilege, priv, means “individual” and also gives us privacy and deprive.)

Words
colleague (v.) [col-, “together” + le(a)g(u)e, “chosen; gathered”] – a person in one’s field who is in a roughly equivalent position; an associate or co-worker
Though Lao was accepted by his colleagues, his bosses often treated him with disdain.
Note: The spelling of this word changed over the years to match the word league, which seems to be related but in fact is not.

college (n.) [col-, “together” + lege, “chosen; gathered”] – a group of people engaged in a common pursuit; a school of higher learning
After a Pope dies, a  college of Cardinals (high-ranking church officials) gathers to elect a new Pope.
Adjective form: collegiate – related to institutions of higher learning

collegial (adj.) [col-, “together” + leg, “chosen; gathered” +-ial] – marked by a spirit of common responsibility and purpose
            Byron’s new workplace was a far cry from the collegial atmosphere of his last job; his new co-workers seemed always to act out of their own self-interest.

delegate (v.) [de-, “from” + leg, “to choose” + -ate] – to give (a task, power, or responsibility) to one’s subordinate; to send as a representative
            An effective executive knows which tasks she must take for her own and which she can afford to delegate.
Noun forms: delegate – a person sent as a representative of a group
delegation – a group sent to represent a larger body; the act of delegating
Note: The verb form is pronounced “DEL-i-gate” and the noun form “DEL-i-git.”

relegate (v.) [re-, “back” + leg, “to choose” + -ate] – to send to an inferior position; to assign (usually an unpleasant task) to one’s subordinate; to banish
After spending most of his career as a highly-paid star player, Miguel was relegated to the poorly-compensated role of back-up outfielder.
Noun form: relegation

June 25, 2009

Root
LEG(IS), LITIG – law; to choose (for an official position)

This week’s root comes from a group of Latin roots based on the Latin legis, meaning “law.”  The root legis gives us such words as legal (“within the law”), legislate (“to write laws”), and litigate (“to sue in a court of law”).  Another common words that comes from this root is legitimate, meaning literally “legal” or “true.”

Another root from this group, the Latin legare, means “to choose or send with a commission.”  This root gives us many vocab words, as you will see this week and next.

Another common word that comes from this group of roots is loyal, which passed through the Old French loial, meaning “choosing to be faithful.”  A few other words in this group share this meaning of faithfulness.

Words
allege (v.) [al-, “toward” + leg(e), “law”] – to assert or accuse, especially in court
As part of the lawsuit, Julius alleged that his neighbor deliberately destroyed his prize petunias.
Noun form: allegation

allegiance (n.) [al-, “toward” + leg, “to choose” + -iance] – loyalty to a group or one’s superiors
Penelope maintained her allegiance to the governor even at the height of his unpopularity.
Adjective form: allegiant

legate (n.) [leg-, “to choose, to send” +-ate] – an official envoy or emissary, particularly a religious one
            Cardinal O’Malley acted as a legate from the Boston Diocese of the Catholic Church to the Massachusetts government.

legacy (n.) [leg-, “to choose” + -acy] – something passed on after one’s death; anything handed down from the past
            Frank Lloyd Wright’s legacy includes the increased blending of natural and artificial in modern buildings.
Related noun: legacy – a person who follows after other members of his or her family, such as a daughter attending the college that her mother graduated from

sacrilege (n.) [sacri-, “holy” + lege, “(to violate) law”] – a violation of a sacred law or ideal
The idea that the world was round was once considered sacrilege among Catholic leaders.

Adjective form: sacrilegious

June 18, 2009

Root
LEG, LECT, LIG – to read; to gather; to choose

This week’s root comes from the Latin legere, meaning “to read,” although legere had itself evolved from an Indo-Europoean root meaning “to gather” or “to choose.”  (You could see how the two would be related, since reading is in a sense “gathering” meaning from words on a page.)  Several common English words are derived from either the original sense of the root or from the more recent meaning of legere.  Some common words that use the “gather” meaning are collect (“to gather together”), recollect (“to gather in memory”), eligible (“able to be chosen”), elect, and select (both of which mean “to choose one of a gathered group”).

Some common words that use the more recent sense (related to reading) are legible (“able to be read”), legend (“a tale that has been gathered into words”), lecture (“something that is read out loud”), religion (which literally means “the act of reading again,” in reference to holy scriptures), and intelligence (“the ability to read or gather information”).

Words
diligent (n.) [di-, “twice” + lig, “to read” + -ent] – with constant attention and persistence; painstaking
Penelope’s diligent work ethic was the main reason she was able to get the grades and test scores that she needed to get into the college of her choice.
Noun form: diligence

elegant (adj.) [e(x)-, “out of” + leg, “to choose” + -ant] – tasteful; refined; graceful
Moira’s elegant dress drew rave reviews from all the television fashion experts at the red-carpet event.
Noun form: elegance

legion (n.) [li(a)-, “to bind” +-en] – a large military unit; any large gathering of people or things
            Reluctantly, the mayor resigned, citing the legion of his former supporters calling for him to step down.
Adjective form: legion – very great in number (as in “The ants on the candy bar were legion.”)

neglect (v.) [neg-, “not” + lect, “to choose”] – to disregard or pay too little attention to; to fail to do
            The nighttime security guard, who slept through his shift, was fired for neglecting his duties.
Adjective form: negligent (or neglectful)
Noun form: neglect

negligible (adj.) [neg-, “not” + lig, “to choose” + -ible, “able”] – of such little importance that any effects are barely noticeable; literally, “neglectable”
Unfortunately, the death penalty has had only negligible effects on murder rates in most countries.

June 11, 2009

Root
LIG(A), LIA – to tie together, to bind
ALL(Y)(I) – to unite

This week’s root comes from the Latin ligare, meaning “to tie together or bind.”  This root made its way into French, forming the word alier, meaning “unite.”  Many of the words we will examine this week come through this French version of the root.

Some common words that come from alier include alliance (“united group”) as well as reliable, which literally means “causing to come together again,” though today we use it more in the sense of “able to be depended on.”  Relatives of both of these words, such as ally and rely, also come from this root. 

Words
alloy (n.) [all(o)y, “to unite”] – a substance created by mixing two or more metals; any mixture of two disparate elements
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is a cheap and durable alternative to pure copper.
Verb form: alloy – to mix two metals; to lessen in purity by mixing

liable (adj.) [lia, “to bond” + -(a)ble] – legally responsible (for); susceptible (to)
After the car accident, Hugh was found liable for the damage to the other vehicle as well as the other driver’s medical costs.
Noun form: liability – a legal responsibility (often a monetary responsibility)

lien (n.) [li(a)-, “to bind” +-en] – a legal claim of one person upon the property of another in order to satisfy a debt or other obligation
            Connie had a lien placed on her house by the bank when she did not make her mortgage payments for six straight months.

liaison (n.) [liaison, “a uniting” (French)] – a contact between two groups or people, particularly between military units or secret romantic partners; a person responsible for making such contact
            The commander told the separated battalions to return to base for a liaison at an hour before dawn.
 
rally (v.) [re-, “again” + ally, “to unite”] – to bring into order again; to call together for common action; to revive or recover
Walter rallied his neighbors to turn the nearby vacant lot into a beautiful park.
Noun form: rally – a renewal or recovery; an extended sequence of action, such as a long point in tennis

June 4, 2009

Root

LIG(A), LIA - to tie together, to bind 

This week's root comes from the Latin ligare, meaning "to tie together or bind."  The most obvious English word that comes from this root is ligament, which refers to a part of a body (usually a band of fibrous tissue) that holds two bones together.  This word is most commonly used in medicine (for obvious reasons) and in athletics, since athletes commonly injure ligaments in their knee, shoulder, and elbow joints. 

A less obvious word that comes from this root is league, which literally means "an association of people, states, etc. bound together by a common goal."  This word has undergone some spelling changes through the years, perhaps influenced by words with similar meanings (but different roots) like colleague.  We'll talk more about these similar-sounding words and roots in a later lesson. 

Words

colligate (v.) [col-, "together" + lig, "to bind" + -ate] - to bind or fasten together; to link 
The detective had uncovered numerous clues but had yet to colligate them into a coherent theory of how the thieves stole the priceless diamond.
Noun form: colligation 

ligature (n.) [liga, "to tie together" + -ture] - the act of tying or binding; a tie or bond 
The surgeon deftly tied the ligature that would hold Marie's pacemaker in place.

obligate (v.) [ob-, "toward" + lig, "to bind" + -ate] - to bind morally or legally

After accidentally killing Renee-s rose bush, Placido felt obligated to buy her a new one.
Noun form: obligation
Adjective form: obligatory - required as a matter of obligation; mandatory  

oblige (v.) [ob-, "toward" + lig, "to bind" + -e] - to place under a debt of gratitude by performing a service; to do a favor

Terry was much obliged to Henrietta for giving him a ride home from school.  
Adjective form: obliging - willing to do favors for others 

noblesse oblige (n.) [noblesse, "of the noble class" (Fr.) + oblige, "obligation" (Fr.)] - the obligation of those with a powerful social position to act with honor, generosity, etc., particularly toward the less-fortunate 
Wealthy philanthropists such as Bill Gates and Ted Turner undoubtedly are at least partially motivated by a sense of noblesse oblige. 

May 28, 2009

Root

SOL(ID), SOLEMN - complete, sacred

SOL(AR) - (of the)sun 

This week, we finish our examination of some of the many roots that use the letters sol.  We'll examine our final two roots this week, from the Latin roots sollus(meaning "whole") and sol (meaning "sun"). 

The root sollus gives us a very common English word, solid, literally meaning "complete and unchanging."  Other common words, such as solidify ("to make whole") and consolidate ("to bring together into a whole"), are obviously based on solid.  A later form of sollus is sollemnus, which was used in religious contexts to indicate something that was "completely holy."  This later form gives us solemn (more on it below).

The Latin word sol is also the official name for our sun ("Sol").  You may also be familiar with this root from foreign languages: the Spanish for sun is sol, the French is soleil, and the Italian is sole.  The common word solar (as in solar eclipse, solar power, and solar system), of course, means "of the sun." 

Words

solder (n.) [sol(i)d, "complete" + -er] - a metal alloy that is melted onto a joint and allowed to harden, thus solidifying the joint; anything that joins or unites 
The welder used twice as much solder on the joints of the see-saw to ensure its safety and stability.

Verb form: solder to join using solder 

solemn (adj.) [solemn, "completely holy"] - extremely serious; joyless; earnest; characterized by formality, such as in legal or religious proceedings 
After being caught copying off of another student, Yolanda took a solemn vow to never again cheat on an assignment.

Noun form: solemnity - extreme seriousness or formality

Verb form: solemnize - to perform a formal ceremony (such as a wedding); to observe an occasion with solemnity 

solicit (v.) [soli(d), "completely" + -cit(us), "arouse"] - to respectfully ask for; to incite (unlawfulness or immorality)

Despite his extreme poverty, Lucas refused to solicit the help of his family.

Noun form: solicitation - the act of attempting to influence others to perform illegal acts 

solicitude (n.) [solicit + -(t)ude] - worry or anxiety; an attitude of excessive attentiveness to another's well-being

Padma's great solicitude was sometimes a burden on her husband, for whom every cough meant a week of being confined to his bed with Padma looming over him.  
Adjective form: solicitous - anxiously concerned; eager; careful 

solidarity (n.) [solid, "complete" + -arity] - union or fellowship brought about by common responsibilities, purposes, and interests 
Mario found solidarity with nearby homeowners, who all desired to reduce crime and beautify the neighborhood. 

solarium (n.) [solar, "of the sun" + -ium, "room"] - a room exposed to the sun (for example, a room with many large windows and skylights)  
Zooey loved to relax in her solarium, which gave her the impression of being outside without the disruptive presence of insects, pollen, and wind.

May 21, 2009

Root

SOLV[E], SOLU - to loosen

SOLE - to be used to 


This week, we continue to examine some of the many roots that use the letters sol.  We'll examine two different roots each week; hopefully, this will help you tell the difference between many similar-looking words.  This week, we'll cover words from the Latin roots solvere (meaning "to loosen") and solere (meaning "to be used to"). 


The Latin word solvere is, as you may have guessed, the source of the English word solve.  If you think of a problem as a knot, then solving it is the same as "loosening" its threads.  More literally, the English word dissolve means "to break up, disperse, or undo," and is particularly used in science to refer to the mixing of a chemical with another, more common chemical such as water.  Another common English word from this root is absolute, which literally means "un-loosen-able": in other words, "pure, complete, or unrestrained."  


The Latin word solere may look similar to solvere, but the two roots are not related.  The root solere is related, however, to suescere, meaning "to become used to."  The English word custom, meaning "something that most people are used to doing," is ultimately derived from suescere, as is accustom and two hard words that we won't be getting into this week (feel free to look them up on your own, though!): desuetude and mansuetude. 


Words

• absolve (v.) [ab-, "away from" + solve, "dissolve"] - to free from guilt or blame 
  Twenty years after he was convicted of murder, DNA evidence absolved Marlon, leading to his release.
  Noun form: absolution - a removal of blame; redemption
  Adjective form: absolvent
  
  
• resolute (adj.) [re-, "again" + solu, "to dissolve" + -ute] - determined; unchanging in purpose or opinion
  Kim remained resolute despite the difficulty of paying for college; with hard work, she graduated with honors and free from debt.
  Verb form: resolve - to become determined to do something; to clear up, settle, or answer (a problem)
  Noun form: resolution - a statement of determination; a solution to a long-running problem; a measure of the clarity of a screen
  Antonym: irresolute - changing one's mind easily; easily distracted or discouraged
  
  
• dissolute (adj.) [dis-, "not" + solu, "to dissolve" + -ute] - immoral; unconcerned with moral or ethical restraintsDamon, unlike his brother, was dissolute; while his brother raised money for charity, Damon gambled.
  Noun form: dissolution
  
  
• solvent (adj.) ["without" + solv, "to dissolve" + -ent] - able to pay all one's debts; in good financial health
  Shawn went to great lengths to keep his company solvent despite the harsh economic conditions, even ordering his employees to work 36-hour weeks. 
  Noun form: solvency
  Antonym: insolvent - unable to pay one's debts
  
  
• insolent (adj.)[in-, "not" + sole, "used to" + -ent] - boldly rude; disrespectful of authority
  Keenan had little tolerance for insolent employees; if someone disobeyed his orders, Keenan fired him on the spot.
  Noun form: insolence
  
  
• obsolete (adj.) [ob-, "against" + sole, "used to" + -ete] - fallen into disuse; out of date
  The pager, once a cutting-edge communications device, is now largely obsolete outside of the medical community.
  Noun form: obsolescence - the state of being or becoming obsolete
  
  

More on other sol roots next week.

May 14, 2009

Root
SOL[E] - to comfort or soothe
SOL[I] - alone


For the next few weeks, we are going to examine a bunch of roots (six, in fact) that all use the same three letters: sol.  We’ll examine two different roots each week; hopefully, this will help you tell the difference between many similar-looking words.  This week, we’ll cover words from the Latin roots solari (meaning “to soothe”) and solus (meaning “alone”).

The Latin word solari is related to the common English word silly; this should not be too surprising, since being silly can definitely make you feel better (not to mention those around you).

The Latin word solus, on the other hand, rather obviously gives us the words solo (“a piece of music for one voice or instrument”) and sole (the adjective meaning “only”, not the noun meaning “the bottom part of a shoe”).  The words solitary (“on one’s own”), solitude (“the state of being alone”), and solitaire (“a game played by oneself”) also come from this root.

Words

• console (v.) [con-, “with” + sole, “comfort”] – to provide comfort in a time of sadness or stress
  Although she did not enjoy it, Amanda felt that it was important to go to the funeral so as to attempt to console the family.
  Noun form: consolation – something that provides a small measure of comfort after a larger disappointment
  Note: The other form of console, meaning “a cabinet for holding electronics” does not come from this root.

• disconsolate (adj.) [dis-, “lacking” + con-, “with” + sol, “comfort” + -ate] – unable to be comforted; cheerless, gloomy
  Jaime was utterly disconsolate after her house burned down.
  


• solace (n.) [sol, “to comfort” + -ace] – comfort during a time of sorrow or misfortune; alleviation of distress
  After his father died, Joseph’s only solace was the old family photo album.


• desolate (adj.) [de-, “without” + sol, “alone” + -ate] – barren; uninhabited; dreary, gloomy
  Only the hardiest of adventurers attempt to trek across the desolate wasteland of California’s Death Valley.
  Noun form: desolation
  


• soliloquy (n.) [soli, “alone” + loqu[y], “speaking”] – the act of speaking to oneself or as if alone
  Shakespeare often used soliloquies to reveal the inner thoughts of his characters to the audience.
  Verb form: soliloquize
  
  
• solipsism (n.) [sol, “alone” + ips[e], “self” + -ism] – the theory that only the self exists; extreme self-absorption
  Micah’s solipsism has alienated many of his coworkers, who do not appreciate his utter lack of regard for their feelings.
  Adjective form: solipsistic
  Related noun form: solipsist – a follower of solipsism

  More on other sol roots next week.

More on this root next week!

May 7, 2009

Root
[CO]GNOS[IS], COGNIT - to learn, to know; knowledge

This root comes from the Latin and Greek words for knowledge, (cognoscere and gignoskein, respectively) and indeed our words know and knowledge are ultimately derived from this root (with stops in a few other languages that led to the spelling changes).  If you like watching medical dramas on television, you have probably heard at least one word from this root over and over: diagnosis, which literally means "learn apart," but today is used to mean "the process of examining a problem or the solution arrived at from this problem."  This word is taken directly from the Greek word diagnosis, meaning "an act of discernment or figuring out." 

Words
• incognito (adj./adv.) [in-, "not" + cognit[o], "to know"] - having one's identity concealed so as to avoid unwanted attention 
  Because his fame was such that he would be mobbed by adoring fans whenever he went in public, Marvin always went incognito when he wanted to go out.
  


• precognition (n.) [pre-, "before" + cognit, "knowledge" + -[t]ion] - the act or process of knowing something is going to happen 
  Philip K. Dick's short story "Minority Report" is about a world in which crimes are prevented by the precognition of a few people with special powers.
  Adjective form: precognitive


• prognosis (n.) [pro-, "forward" + gnosis, "to know"] - a forecast of the probable course or outcome of an event, especially a disease
  Although Manuel contracted the swine flu, the doctor's prognosis was for a full and speedy recovery. 



• prognosticate (v.) [pro-, "forward" + gnos, "to know" + -tic + -ate] - to predict the future
  Every year, Ingrid attempts to prognosticate the winner of the World Series, and every year the team she picks fails to even make the playoffs.
  Noun form: prognostication - the act of predicting the future; a prediction  
  
  


• reconnaissance (n.) [re-, "back" + con[oi]issance, "become aware of" (French)] - a search for useful information, usually by examining one's physical surroundings 
  One of the secrets of great generals is that ten skilled men engaged in reconnaissance are worth more than a thousand on the battlefield.
  Verb form: reconnoiter  
  

  April 30, 2009

  Root
  [CO]GNOS[IS], COGNIT - to learn, to know; knowledge
  
  This root comes from the Latin and Greek words for knowledge, (cognoscere and gignoskein, respectively) and indeed our words know and knowledge are ultimately derived from this root (with stops in a few other languages that led to the spelling changes).  Another common English word derived form this root is ignore (literally, "to not know"), which has also experienced some spelling modifications over time.  One common English word that more closely maintains the original Latin spelling is recognize, which literally means "to know again."
  
  Words
  • agnostic (adj.) [a-, "not" + gnos, "to know" + -tic] - unsure of a belief (usually the belief in God)
    Neither a believer nor an atheist, Mike remained agnostic, claiming that no one can know for certain whether God exists.
    Noun form: agnostic - one who is agnostic
    Related noun form: agnosticism - a system of thought based around the idea that humans cannot know the answers to certain (spiritual) questions
    
  
  
  • cognition (n.) [cognit, "knowledge" + -[t]ion] - the act or process of knowing or perceiving; knowledge
    The study of dolphin cognition found that dolphins are nearly as intelligent as human children.
    Adjective form: cognitive - related to human knowledge or thought processes
    
  
  
  
  • cognizant [of] (adj.) [cogni[z], "to know" + -ant] - aware of; knowing about
    Mark was not cognizant of the changes in Maria's behavior until Rachel pointed them out to him.
    Noun form: cognizance - awareness; realization; knowledge
    
  
  
  
  • cognoscenti (n.) [cognoscenti, "those who know" (Latin)] - persons have (or claim to have) a superior understanding of a particular field, particularly in the arts
    The author refused to listen to the literary cognoscenti who claimed that her work was derivative.
    
  
  
  
  • gnostic (adj.) [gnos, "to know" + -tic] - of or related to knowledge, especially knowledge of spiritual matters
    My pastor claims no special gnostic abilities, only a strong faith and knowledge brought about through extensive study of the Bible.
    Noun form: Gnosticism - a sect of early Christianity based around the belief that its members had superior spiritual knowledge

  April 23, 2009

  Root
  SEQU, SECU, SUE - to follow
   
  This root comes from the Latin word sequi, meaning "follow."  Last week we discussed a few common English words that have obvious links to this root; this week, we'll talk about a few common words that are connected to this root in less-obvious ways.  The first of these, execute (literally, "to follow through"), has lost the "s" from the root secu over time.  Another word, suitor (literally, "follower," although today it means something closer to "one who seeks something -usually love- from another person"), has replaced the "i" in the root sue.  Finally, there is a word that may seem too obvious to consider: sue, which has an archaic meaning related to suitor's, but today means "to begin legal proceedings against."
   
  Words
  
  • persecute (v.) [per-, "thoroughly" + secu, "follow" + -te] - to harass or oppress, particularly because of religion, race, or beliefs
    Archibald felt as if he was being persecuted by his friends, who constantly teased him for preferring Star Trek to Star Wars.
    Noun form: persecution
     
    
  • prosecute (v.) [pro-, "forward" + secu, "follow" + -te] - to conduct criminal proceedings against in court; to undertake or carry forward
    The general felt that there was no way to prosecute the invasion without endangering civilians.
    Noun form: prosecution
    
    
  • sect (n.) [sec[t], "follow"] - a group of followers united by a particular belief
    Though Lutheranism started as a tiny sect, it has now grown into a denomination with over 64 million followers.
    
    
  • sequester (v.) [sequ, "follow" + -ester] - to remove or separate from the population as a whole
    The judge sequestered the jury to prevent them from hearing media reports about the trial.
    Noun form: sequestration
     
    
  • subsequent (adj.) [sub-, "close behind" + sequ, "follow" + -ent] - following after
    Though my initial response to Marty's plan was skeptical, subsequent events proved his plan to be quite effective.
    

  April 16, 2009

  Root
  SEQU, SECU, SUE – foot

  This root comes from the Latin word sequi, meaning “follow.”  Some common English words that come from this root include sequel (“something that follows”), consecutive (“following after”), and sequence (“a series of things following one after another”).  Another common word that uses this root is consequence, which literally means “following as a result of;” unlike consecutive, which is used for any thing that follows another thing in time or space, consequence is mainly used to refer to events that follow (usually important) decisions or actions.

  • consequential (adj.) [con-, “with” + sequ, “follow” + -ent + -ial] – important; having great effects
    Myron’s wealth and social connections made him one of the most consequential figures in Atlanta.
    Antonym: inconsequential – having no effect; completely unimportant
  • ensue (v.) [en- [in-], “upon” + sue, “follow”] – to follow in order or as a result of
     After Juan stated that Star Wars is better than Star Trek, a fierce argument ensued.
    Adjective form: ensuing
    
  • non sequitur (n.) [non, “not” + sequitur, “it follows” (Latin)] – a statement containing an illogical or unrelated conclusion
    Kyle explained his preference for Star Wars with a statement that I considered to be a non sequitur: “Wookiees are covered in hair.”
    
  • obsequious (adj.) [ob-, “after” + sequ, “follow” + -ious] – overly obedient or deferential; servile
    Mr. Smithers, the obsequious servant, agrees with all of Mr. Burns’ proclamations, no matter how strange or evil they may be.
    Noun form: obsequiousness
    
  • pursue (v.) [pur- [pro-], “forward” + sue, “follow”] – to follow in order to catch; to strive for; to continue
    Joseph decided to pursue his college degree more than five years after dropping out.
    Noun form: pursuit
    Adjective/adverb form: pursuant – following after; according to

  April 9, 2009

  Root
  PED, POD, PUS – foot

  This root comes from the Latin pedis and the Greek podos, both meaning "foot." From it, we get many common and biological words, including pedal ("something you push with your foot"), pedicure ("treatment for the foot"), pedestrian ("one who goes on foot"), biped ("one who stands on two feet"), centipede ("hundred-footed"), expedition ("trip"; literally, "footsteps outside"), octopus ("eight-footed"), tripod ("three-footed"), and platypus ("flat-footed").

  • antipodes (pl. n.) [anit-, “against” + podes, “feet”] – two things that are the exact opposite; two places on opposite sides of the earth 
    The homeless shelter and the nearby high-rise condominium complex are the city’s antipodes.
    Adjective form: antipodal
  • expedient (adj.) [ex-, “out” + ped, “foot” + -ient] – fit or suitable for a given purpose; promoting or speeding the achievement of a goal (literally, “taking steps toward”) 
    When planning an international vacation, it is expedient to get your passport well in advance of the trip.
    Noun form: expediency 
    
  • expedite (v.) [ex-, “out of” + ped, “foot” + -ite] – to speed up the progress of; to hasten 
    I paid $5 extra so the shipping company would expedite the delivery of my friend’s birthday present.
    Related noun form: expedition 
    
  • impede (v.) [im-, “not” + ped[e], “foot”] – to obstruct or slow down; to add obstacles 
    The continual distraction of the crying baby impeded my efforts to finish the report.
    Noun form: impediment – an obstruction or obstacle 
    
  • pedestrian (adj.) [ped[estr], “foot” + -ian] – lacking in imagination; commonplace; dull 
    Mike’s pedestrian effort on his final paper received a mediocre grade.
    Note: This usage is presumably derived from the fact that walking is a “common” or boring way of traveling. 
    
  • podium (n.) [pod, “foot” + -ium] – a small platform or lectern on which a speaker or other figure stands when addressing an audience 
    Though he had rehearsed his speech endlessly, Marvin was quite nervous as he stood at the podium.

  March 28, 2009

  Root
  GEN[ER] – type or kind (especially of people); origin; upper-class

  This root is derived from the Latin word genus, meaning “a type or kind of thing.”  This Latin word, which can also mean “origin,” is related to the root we covered last week, genesis, (meaning “birth”).  The word genus is preserved in English, particularly in biology, in which genus is a classification of organisms (between family and species).  Other common words derived from this root include: gender (“type of person”), general (“of all types”), and generate, (“to originate a new thing”).  This root often refers to people of the upper class, and thus often has a positive connotation; for instance, the word generous used to mean “of the higher type of person.”  Today, it simply means “giving” or “unselfish,” supposed characteristics of the upper-class.  The word gentle, meaning “kind,” was formed in a similar way.

  • degenerate (adj.) [de-, “without” + gener, “upper-class” + -ate] – fallen below a normal or desirable level, especially morally; degraded or deteriorated
    The degenerate group of thieves started out stealing only from the rich but soon were stealing from charities and churches.
    Verb form: degenerate – to lower in quality
    Noun forms: degenerate – one who has fallen below a normal or desirable level of morality
    degeneracy – the act or condition of being degenerate
    degeneration – the process of degenerating
    Note: The last syllable of the adjective and noun forms rhymes with “hit,” while the last syllable of the verb form rhymes with “hate.”
  • genealogy (n.) [gen[ea], “origin” + -ology, “study of”] – the study of one’s ancestry
    When researching my family’s genealogy, I discovered that I am related to Thomas Jefferson.
    Adjective form: genealogical
  • generic (adj.) [gener, “type” + -ic] – applying to all members of a certain type; general
    My generic response to all questions about my personal life is “Mind your own business.”
  • genocide (n.) [gen-, “type (of people)” + -ocide, “to kill”] – killing (or trying to kill) all members of a certain race, ethnic group, etc.
    I believe that the United Nations did not do enough to stop the genocide of ethnic Tutsis in Rwanda in 1994.
    Adjective form: genocidal
    Verb form: genocide
  • genre (n.) [genre, “type”(French)] – a class or category of artistic work, such as “biography” or “science-fiction”
    My least favorite movie genre is horror, but romantic comedies are a close second.

  March 23, 2009

  Root
  GEN – to give birth; to bring forth

  This root comes from the Latin genesis, meaning “birth.”  Some common scientific words come from this root, including gene and genetic.  These words relate to traits that are passed down hereditarily, from parents to child, and are present from birth onward.

  Note: Don’t confuse this root with the related root genus, which means “kind,” “type,” or “origin.”  Though these roots are related, they tend to be used differently in English words: words derived from genus tend to refer to types of things, while words derived from genesis refer to things coming into being.  To make this more confusing, many of these words sound the same: gender (from genus) and engender (from genesis), for instance.

  • congenital (adj.) [con-, “with” + gen, “birth” + -ital] – related to a condition present at birth
    Though a congenital defect left him with an abnormal heartbeat, James now leads a normal life.
  • engender (v.) [en-, “in” + gen, “bring forth” + -der] – to produce or give rise to; to procreate
    Racial hatred often engenders violence.
  • genesis (n.) [genesis, “birth”] – a beginning or birth
    Accidents are the genesis of many great inventions, such as penicillin and vulcanized rubber.
  • indigenous (adj.) [indi- [in-], “in” + gen, “birth” + -ous] – originating in a particular place; native (to)
    The indigenous plant life of Australia has replaced in many places by species of European and North American origin.
    Noun form: indigenousness
  • primogeniture (n.) [primo-, “first” + gen, “birth” + -iture, “system”] – a system of inheritance or succession based on the firstborn child (often firstborn son)
    In countries where primogeniture is still dominant, second sons often have to leave home to make a living.
    Adjective forms: primogenital, primogenitary
  • progenitor (n.) [pro-, “forward” + gen, “birth” + -or] – ancestor; predecessor or precursor
    Fossil studies have shown that dinosaurs are the progenitors of birds.
    Related noun form: progeny – children or offspring; descendants

  March 16, 2009

  Root
  OR[A] – mouth; to speak

  This root comes from the Latin words oris (“mouth”) and orare (“to speak”).  The most common English word based on these roots is oral (“having to do with the mouth; having to do with speaking”).  Another common word that is less-obviously related to this root is adore, which literally means “to speak toward.”  You can probably imagine how adore would come to mean “to cherish or love,” since you would definitely “speak toward” something that you cherish.

  • inexorable (adj.) [in-, “not” + ex-, “out of” + or, “to speak” + -able] – unyielding; unable to be changed, persuaded, or otherwise affected
    The inexorable tides gradually wear away the rock, slowly but steadily converting it to sand.
    Noun form: inexorability
    Antonym: exorable
  • oracle (n.) [ora, “to speak” + -cle] – a person who makes authoritative or wise pronouncements
    James’ financial advice is so consistently correct that he has been dubbed “The Oracle of Wall Street.”
    Adjective form: oracular
  • orator (n.) [ora, “to speak” + -tor] – a skilled public speaker
    Not all presidents are great orators; Calvin Coolidge, in fact, rarely spoke at length in public.
    Related noun form: oratory – skill or eloquence in public speaking; the art of formal public speaking
    Related noun form: oration – a public speech
    Adjective form: oratorical
    Verb form: orate
  • orotund (adj.) [or, “mouth” + [r]otund, “round”] – characterized by a strong or full voice; pompous
    The boxer boasted of his prowess in an orotund voice so as to intimidate his opponents.
    Noun form: orotundity
  • peroration (n.) [per-, “thoroughly” + or, “to speak” + -ate] – a long, forceful speech (often using lofty or pompous language)
    After the officer gave me a speeding ticket, I got to hear my mother’s peroration about the dangers or reckless driving.
    Verb form: perorate

  March 5, 2009

  Root
  MAN[D][U], MAIN – hand; to put in the hands of

  This root, from the Latin manus (“hands”) and mandare (“to put in someone’s hands”), is used both literally (to refer to hands) and metaphorically (often referring to authority, since if something is “in your hands,” you are have authority over it).  Some common words that use the literal definition are manicure (literally, “polishing the hands”), manufacture (“made by hand”), maneuver (literally “handwork,” though it now means “a planned movement”), maintain (“to hold in hand”), and mano a mano.  This last phrase is often misunderstood to mean “man to man,” though it actually means “hand to hand.”

  Some other common words that come from this root are command (“to ask with authority”), demand (“to ask for with authority”), and manage (“to handle with authority”).

  • countermand (v.) [counter-, “against” + mand, “with authority”] – to give an order that overrides a prior order
    The colonel countermanded his earlier order to charge the hill once he learned of the enemy’s fortifications.
  • emancipate (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + man, “hand” + cip, “to seize” + -ate] – to set free (from slavery)
    George Washington emancipated his slaves after the Revolutionary War.
    Noun form: emancipation
    Adjective form: emancipated
  • manacle (n.) [man, “hand” + -acle [-icle], “small”] – a handcuff or shackle for the hand or wrist
    All prisoners in the King’s dungeon were placed in heavy iron manacles.
  • mandate (n.) [mand, “authority” + -ate] – an authoritative order or command
    The King’s mandate stated that all able-bodied men of ages 15 to 50 must join the army.
    Adjective form: mandatory – required
    Verb form: mandate – to give a command
  • manifest (adj.) [man, “hand” + i[n]fest] – obvious; easily seen
    Though “freedom” is a vague concept, it does have tangible benefits.
    Adjective form: tangibility
    Antonym: intangible
  • manumission (n.) [tact, “to touch” + -ile] – of or related to the sense of touch; perceptible to the touch
    Audrey loves the tactile sensation of silk sheets against her skin.

  February 26, 2009

  Root
  TANG, TACT – to touch

  This root is based on the Latin word tangere, “touching.”  The most common English word derived from this root is contact, which literally means “touching together.”  The word intact, (literally, “untouched”) also comes from this root.  You may also recognize the word tangent from your math classes.  In geometry, a tangent is a line that touches a shape at only one poitn; in trigonometry, tangent is the ratio of the two sides that “touch” the right angle.  Below, we will discuss another definition of the word tangent.

  • attain (v.) [at- [ad-], “toward” + tain [tang], “to touch”] – to achieve or accomplish; to arrive at (a goal)
    Thanks to many hours of studying, Martina attained her desired score on the test—an A.
    Adjective form: attainable – able to be accomplished
    Noun form: attainment – the act of achieving a goal
  • tact (n.) [tact, “to touch”] – the ability to not give offense, especially in difficult situations; a sense of what is appropriate or tasteful in a given situation
    Ryan, with an astonishing lack of tact, tried to give the blind man a high five.
    Adjective forms: tactful, tactless
  • tactile (adj.) [tact, “to touch” + -ile] – of or related to the sense of touch; perceptible to the touch
    Audrey loves the tactile sensation of silk sheets against her skin.
  • tangent (n.) [tang, “to touch” + -ent] – a thought or idea that is only slightly related to the previous thought or idea; a digression
    Marco’s essay stayed on-topic for the first three paragraphs, but the fourth paragraph was a tangent.
    Adjective form: tangential – digressive; only somewhat related to the previous topic
  • tangible (adj.) [tang, “to touch” + -ible] – able to perceived by touch; real or actual (rather than imaginary); definite
    Though “freedom” is a vague concept, it does have tangible benefits.
    Adjective form: tangibility
    Antonym: intangible

  February 19, 2009

  Root
  SPEC[T], SPIC – to see, watch, or look at

  Here are a few more common words that use this root (which is derived from the Latin specere, meaning “to see”): perspective (literally, “thorough sight”), spectacle (“something worth looking at”), spectacular (“worth looking at”), spectator (“on-looker”), spectrum (“way of classifying sight”), and suspicious (“looking under”).

  • perspicacity (n.) [per-, “thorough” + spic, “to see” + -acity] – great insight, perception, or understanding
    Mrs. Humphreys gave the paper an A because it showed great perspicacity and contained no errors.
    Adjective form: perspicacious
  • prospective (adj.) [pro-, “forward” + spect, “to see” + -ive] – potential; expected; in the future
    Angela’s prospective income next month depends greatly on the number of cars she sells.
    Noun form: prospect – a potential source of profit; prospects – outlook for the future
    Verb form: prospect – to search or explore for something of value, such as gold
    Related noun: prospectus – a document describing the outline of a proposed future project
  • respective (adj.) [re-, “again” + spect, “to see” + -ive] – in relation to each of a group of people, objects, etc.
    Esther found major flaws in each of the candidates’ respective proposals.
    Antonym: irrespective – without regard to (usually followed by “of”)
    Note: Do not confuse this word with respectful!
  • retrospective (n.) [retro-, “backward” + spect, “to see” + -ive] – a series of performances, exhibits, etc. showing representative works from each stage of the career of a performer or artist
    The Picasso retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art includes over 100 works, ranging from his early cartoons to the experimental etchings he completed in the years before his death.
    Adjective form: retrospective – looking backward
    Related noun form: retrospection – the act of looking to the past
  • specious (adj.) [spec, “to look” + -ious] – appearing to be good or right while actually lacking merit
    The lawyer was effective because few jurors discovered the flaws in his specious arguments.
    Adjective form: speciousness

  February 12, 2009

  Root
  SPEC[T], SPIC – to see, watch, or look at

  This root, from the Latin specere, meaning “to see,” gives us a bunch of common English words.  A few of these are inspect (literally, “to look inside”), respect (“to look back with consideration”) and suspect (“to look under”).  Additionally, the words special, specific, and species all derive from the related Latin form species, meaning “appearance or form.”

  • aspect (n.) [a-, “on, into” + spect, “to see”] – a part; a quality or characteristic; appearance
    The thief’s plan was lacking in one aspect: he had no way of escaping the museum if he triggered an alarm.
  • auspicious (adj.) [au- [avi-], “bird” + spic, “to watch” + -ious] – promising success; fortunate
    It is said that a red sky at night is an auspicious sign for the following day’s weather.
    Noun form: auspices – support or sponsorship; a favorable sign
    Antonym: inauspicious – boding ill; unfavorable
    Note: This word derives from the ancient Roman practice of reading omens from the movements of birds.
  • circumspect (adj.) [circum-, “around” + spect, “to see”] – cautious; prudent; watchful
    It is better to be circumspect with your secrets than to tell them to the wrong person.
    Noun form: circumspection
  • conspicuous (adj.) [con-, “with” + spic, “to see” + -uous] – easily seen or noticed; attracting attention
    During her speech, Casey made the conspicuous error of pronouncing the word nuclear “NUKE-yu-ler.”
    Noun form: conspicuousness
  • despise (v.) [de-, “down” + spise [spic], “to look”] – to look down on; to have contempt for; to hate
    I absolutely despise cleaning the bathroom, but my mom makes me do it every week.
    Adjective form: despicable – worthy of contempt

  February 5, 2009

  Root
  ROG – to ask (for); to request

  This root is from the Latin rogare.  The meaning of “to ask,” on occasion, can be strengthened to mean “to demand.” Two common words that derive from this root are interrogate (“to ask questions of; to demand answers from”) and interrogative, which you may familiar with from your grade-school English classes.  As you may recall, interrogative sentences are sentences that ask a question.

  • abrogate (v.) [ab-, “away from” + rog, “to ask” + -ate] – to outlaw or abolish; to put an end to
    My calculus professor abrogated the use of calculators on her exams.
    Noun form: abrogation
  • arrogant (adj.) [ar- [ad-], “toward” + rog, “to ask” + -ant] – overly proud; claiming to be superior (without justification)
    Annie did not brag about her perfect SAT score because she did not want to appear arrogant.
    Noun form: arrogance
    Verb form: arrogate – to claim without right
  • derogatory (adj.) [de-, “take away” + rog, “to ask” + -atory] – insulting; lessening the worth or reputation of a person or thing
    Marcia’s derogatory manner alienated many of her friends, who wished she would be nicer.
    Synonym: derogative
    Verb form: derogate – to insult; to detract from
    Noun form: derogation
  • prerogative (n.) [pre-, “before” + rog, “to ask” + -ative] – an exclusive right or privilege
    One of the governor’s prerogatives is the use of an armor-plated limousine.
  • surrogate (n.) [sur- [sub-], “under” + rog, “to ask” + -ate] – a person appointed to act for another; a substitute
    At the meeting, Thomas acted as a surrogate for his boss, who was ill.
    Adjective form: surrogate – acting as a surrogate
    Verb form: surrogate – to substitute for another
    Note: The last syllable of the noun and adjective forms rhymes with “hit”; the last syllable of the verb form rhymes with “hate”.

  January 29, 2009

  Root
  MUN[E] – duty, gift, community

  This root is from the Latin munus, which referred both to a duty shared by members of a community (hence, “duty”) and to an entertainment paid for by a local judge for the benefit of the community (hence, “gift”).  The sense of sharing and community that is common to both the meanings also occurs in many of the English words based on this root.  The most common word from this root is one that has already been used twice in this paragraph—common.  Common literally means “shared by a group or community.”  As you may have guessed, the word community is also derived from this root, as is communicate (“to share with the community”).

  • commune (v.) [com- [con-], “with” + mune, “community”] – to be in intimate communication (with)
    The television psychic claims to be able to commune with the spirits of dead people.
    Related noun: commune – a small group of people living together and sharing possessions, tasks, etc.
  • excommunicate (v.) [ex-, “out of” + com- [con-], “with” + mun, “community” + -icate] – to cut off or expel from membership of a group (especially a church or other religious group)
    The priest was excommunicated from the Catholic church for advocating that priests should be able to marry.
    Noun form: excommunication
  • immune (adj.) [im-, “without” + mune, “duty”] – protected from (especially a disease); exempt from
    By this point in his career, the famous author had become immune to criticism; bad reviews no longer bothered him.
    Noun form: immunity 
    Verb form: immunize – to provide protection from something (usually a disease)
  • municipal (adj.) [mun[i]-, “community” + cip, “to take” + -al] – related to city or local government
    The city council imposed a municipal tax of 1% on all hotel and rental car purchase in the city limits.
    Noun form: municipality – a city or town with some elements of self-governance
  • munificent (adj.) [mun[i]-, “gift” + fic, “to make” + -ent] – very generous
    The former software company CEO has munificently given billions to prevent AIDS and other diseases.
    Noun form: munificence
  • remunerate (v.) [re-, “back” + mun, “gift” + -erate] – to pay back (for); to reward (for) work or effort
    Because Marvin mowed her lawn and cleaned her gutters, Mrs. DeLillo remunerated him with a home-cooked meal and a trip to the movies.
    Noun form: remuneration

  January 22, 2009

  Root
  VIS[E], VID – to see, to watch

  This root comes from the Latin word videre, meaning “to see.”  A wealth of common words are derived from this root, including vision, video, visual, and (in)visible, all of which have meanings directly related to “seeing.”  Some other words derived from this root include supervise (literally, “to watch over”), visit (“to go see”), provide (“to have foresight”), and review (“to look back on”).  One word with an interesting derivation is advise, which comes from the French words a vis, part of the phrase ce m’est a vis, meaning “that is my view;” in that phrase, vis means “view.”

  Two common words that don’t come from this word are divide and device, both of which come from the Latin root dividere, meaning “to split.”

  • envision (v.) [en-, “in or on” + vis, “to see” + -ion] – to picture mentally
    Can you envision a future without war or hunger?
    Related noun: envisage – to contemplate or visualize
  • improvise (v.) [im-, “without” + pro- “forward” + vise, “to see”] – to act without planning or foresight
    I improvised my speech for the banquet because I forgot my notes.
    Noun form: induction – an act or ceremony of introducing a person into a group or position
  • provision (n.) [pro-, “forward” + vis, “to see” + -ion] – a clause in a legal document dealing with a future scenario; preparation beforehand; the supplying of something, especially food
    Mr. Smith’s will contains a provision stating that his money be divided up equally among his children.
    Related noun: proviso – a clause or condition in a legal document.
    Adjective form: provisional – temporary; existing only until permanently replaced; conditional
  • revise (v.) [re-, “again” + vise, “to see”] – to look over again or review; to change or fix
    If you revise your essay before turning it in, you will be able to fix grammar and spelling errors.
    Noun form: revision
  • visage (n.) [vis-, “to see” + -age] – (the physical features of) the face; appearance
    After the fight, the boxer’s bloody nose and black eyes made for a brutal visage.
  • vista (n.) [visto (Italian), “a view”] – a long-range view
    I could see a grand vista of snow-capped mountains peeking through the trees.

  January 15, 2009

  Root
  DUC[E], DUCT – to lead

  This root is from the Latin ducere, meaning “to lead”.  Some other common words derived from it are produce (literally, “to lead forth”), its relative reproduce (“to lead forth again”), and reduce (“to lead back”).  All of these words can be made into nouns by dropping the e at the end and adding the suffix –tion.  All those nouns refer to processes.  The word produce, though, can also be made into product, which refers to an object that is produced, or used as a noun by itself to refer to fresh fruits and vegetables.

  • induce (v.) [in-, “into” + duce, “to lead”] – to lead through persuasion; to cause to happen; to assert based on a number of observations
    After 10 minutes, I finally managed to induce Amanda to donate to by club’s fundraiser.
    Noun form: induction – the logical process of determining truth based on prior observations
    Adjective form: inductive – using or related to induction
  • induct (v.) [in-, “toward” + duct, “to lead”] – to install in an office or position; to introduce as a member
    This year, Rickey Henderson will be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.
    Noun form: induction – an act or ceremony of introducing a person into a group or position
  • seduce (v.) [se-, “apart, away” + duce, “to lead”] – to lead astray (from duty, principles, etc.); to attract or entice
    During the 1930’s, some Americans were seduced into doing business with Hitler’s Nazi regime.
    Noun form: seduction
    Adjective form: seductive
  • subduct (v.) [sub-, “under” + duct, “to lead”] – to draw downward or below; to take away; to subtract
    The North American continental plate is gradually subducting the neighboring Atlantic plate.
    Noun form: subduction – the geologic process by which continental plates are forced underneath other plates
  • traduce (v.) [tra[ns]-, “through” + duce, “to lead”] – to speak unfavorably (and falsely) about; to slander
    Do not traduce Rob’s good name by calling him a “scalliwag,” even in jest!
    

  January 8, 2009

  Root
  DUC[E], DUCT – to lead

  This root is from the Latin ducere, meaning “to lead”.  Some common words from this root are conduct (literally, “to lead a group”) and introduce (literally, “to lead into”).  Another common word, educate, is based on the verb educe, which is defined below.

  Because this root has two forms (-duce and –duct), there are several pairs of words that have the same prefix but different forms of the root.  These words usually have similar meanings but slightly different uses.  An example of this is the pair deduce and deduct, both of which are defined below.  After reading the definitions, ask yourself how the words are similar, and how they are different.

  • abduct (v.) [ab-, “away” + duct, “to lead”] – to carry off illegally; to kidnap
    The detective could not tell if the teenager had been abducted  or had run away of her own free will.
    Noun form: abduction
  • adduce (v.) [ad-, “toward” + duce, “to lead”] – to bring forward as evidence in an argument; to cite
    Moira adduced the new health study to support her argument that high-fiber diets help prevent cancer.
    Noun form: adduction
    Adjective form: adductive
  • conducive (adj.) [con-, “together” + duc, “to lead” + -ive] – helpful; favorable (used with “to”)
    I find that listening to music can be very conducive to effective studying.
    Verb forms: conduce (and conduct)
  • deduce (v.) [de-, “from” + duce, “to lead”] – to derive a conclusion directly from evidence; to infer
    The doctor was able to deduce the cause of his patient’s illness from the shape and color of her rash.
    Noun form: deduction – the act or process of inferring; something that is inferred
    Adjective form: deductive
  • deduct (v.) [de-, “from” + duct, “to lead”] – to take away, as from an amount; to detract (used with “from”)
    My English teacher deducts 10 points for every grammar error, no matter how minor.
    Noun form: deduction – the act or process of taking away; something that is taken away
  • educe (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + duce, “to lead”] – to draw forth or bring out; to elicit; to develop
    After five minutes of questioning, I finally managed to educe the identity of my friend’s secret crush.
    Related verb form: educate
    

  December 31, 2008

  Root
  PUNCT, PUNG[E] – to prick; sharp, pointed; point

  The Latin root pungere means "to prick with a pointed object" or "to sting," and it gives us English words with a variety of meanings related to the concept of "points." The most obvious of these words is puncture, meaning "to poke a hole in."  The word punctuation may seem unrelated at first, until you consider the shape of the period—a point.  Indeed, most punctuation marks are made by "pricking" the paper with sharp, quick movements of the pen.

  Another common word derived from this root is punctual.  A person who is punctual always arrives "on a point"; in other words, they always make sure to arrive at the correct "point" in time.  (The vocab word punctilious, which we discuss below, uses a similar sense of "point".)

  • compunction (n.) [com- [con-], "with" + punct, "sharp" + -[t]ion] – a sharp feeling of guilt or misgiving
    The comic-book villain showed no compunction about risking the lives of thousands of innocent citizens.
    Adjective form: compunctious
  • expunge (v.) [ex-, "out of" + punge, "point"] – to mark text for deletion; to destroy or eliminate
    Mark's editor was forced to expunge large chunks of his novel in order to reduce the book to a readable length.
  • poignant (adj.) [poign [pung], "pointed" (French) + -ant] – sharply affecting one's feelings; nostalgic
    The ending of the movie, in which the beloved family dog dies, is so poignant that most who watch it end up in tears.
    Noun form: poignancy
  • punctilious (adj.) [punct, "point" + -ilious] – paying strict attention to the fine points of behavior or conduct
    Ever punctilious, Shauna went out of her way to pay me back the 50 cents I gave her.
    Noun form: punctiliousness
    Related noun form: punctilio – a fine point of conduct, ceremony, or procedure
  • pungent (adj.) [pung, "sharp, pointed" + -ent] – having an intense flavor or odor; sharply painful
    Wasabi is a Japanese spice of the mustard family with an extremely pungent flavor that irritates the nasal passages.
    Noun form: pungency

  December 23, 2008

  Root
  CUR[R], COUR[SE] – run

  This root is from the Latin currere, meaning “to run.”  Another common word derived from this root is occur, which literally means “to run up against,” but has come to have the more general meaning of “to happen.”  Also, the word currency, which usually is used to refer to money, comes from this root.  It started out as the noun form of current, and meant something like “now-ness” or “importance at the present time.” Gradually, it came to mean “value” or “worth.”  From there, its meaning took the short jump to being used as a synonym for money.

  • excursion (n.) [ex-, “out” + cur, “run” + -sion] – a short trip, usually to an outdoor location
    Kyle and his three golden retrievers go on a weekly excursion to the dog park.
    Adjective form: excursive
  • incur (v.) [in-, “into” + cur, “run”] – to bring (something harmful) upon oneself
    David incurred heavy fines by repeatedly parking in handicapped parking spaces.
    Noun form: incursion – an invasion or raid; an entering into (as in a complex task)
    Adjective form: incursive – related to invasion or attack
  • precursor (n.) [pre-, “before” + cursor, “runner” (Latin)] – forerunner; one who precedes another
    Rob’s precursor in his current office left several velvet paintings of Elvis on the walls.
    Adjective form: precursory
  • recourse (n.) [re-, “again, back” + course, “run”] – access to a person or thing for aid or protection
    After the Supreme court ruled against him, Micah had no other legal recourse to get his job back.
  • recur (v.) [re-, “again, back” + cur, “run”] – to happen again; to return to mind or attention
    The doctor gave me a antibiotics and told be to come back if my symptoms recurred.
    Adjective form: recurrent – happening over and over again
    Alternate adjective form: recursive – related to a process that is performed repeatedly

  December 15, 2008

  Root
  CUR[R], COUR[SE] – run

  This root is from the Latin currere, meaning “to run.”  As you may have guessed, the word course itself comes from this root; as a noun, course means “a place to run”; as a verb, course means “to run or flow through.”  Another common word from this root is current, which can loosely be defined as “running at the present moment.”  Elementary-school students also deal regularly with a word from this root: cursive, as in cursive writing, a type of writing that “runs” directly from one letter to the next.

  Note: Don’t mix up the words from this root with words derived from the Latin root curare, which means “to cure.”  Words derived from curare include cure, curator, accurate, curious, procure, and sinecure.

  • concur (v.) [con-, “with” + cur, “run”] – to agree; to approve; to act together
    Michael has stated that Portland is a great city to visit, and I concur.
    Adjective form: concurrent – happening at the same time; acting together
    Noun form: concurrence – the simultaneous occurrence of events; agreement
    Alternate noun form: concourse – an open space where roads or paths meet
  • courier (n.) [cour, “run” + -ier] – a messenger
    The courier had to travel twelve miles in the middle of a snowstorm in order to deliver his message.
  • curriculum (n.) [curriculum, “running, course” (Latin)] – the courses offered by an educational institution
    Maria felt that the technical school should expand its curriculum to offer more English classes.
    Adjective form: curricular
  • cursory (adj.) [cursorius, “of running” (Latin)] – quickly done, often with very little attention to detail; hasty
    Because I took only a cursory glance at the student’s essay, I failed to notice that the last two paragraphs were off-topic.
    Noun form: cursoriness
  • discourse (n.) [dis-, “apart, about” + course, “running”] – verbal exchange of ideas; formal expression of thought; a conversation or story
    I got so little sleep last night that I had trouble following the discourse of the speakers at the public-affairs forum.
    Verb form: discourse – to talk or converse; to engage in formal discussion
    Adjective form: discursive – moving from topic to topic without order; related to discourse

  December 8, 2008

  Root
  GRAV – heavy; to weigh down

  Last week, we discussed words derived from the Latin root levis, meaning “light,” so this week we’ll talk about its antonym, gravis, meaning (surprise, surprise) “heavy.”  As with last week’s words, the words derived from gravis have a mix of both literal and metaphorical meanings.  One word from this root that has a literal meaning is gravity, which is, of course, the force that “weighs us down.”  Gravity also has a metaphorical meaning, however—“heaviness or seriousness of a situation; importance,” as in the sentence Even a light-hearted person like James could feel the gravity of the memorial service.

  A couple other common words derive from this root but don’t follow the spelling pattern: grief and grieve.  Both of these words relate to the heaviness of spirit that  one feels after a loss (particularly a death of a loved one).

  Note: while the adjective from of the word grave comes from this root (see below), the noun form (meaning “a hole in the earth where a body is buried”) does not, though it certainly does share a common tone with words like grieve and gravity.  The noun form of grave actually derives from an old German root meaning “to dig.”

  • aggravate (v.) [ag- [ad-], “toward” + grav, “heavy” + -ate] – to make worse; to make heavier
    Do not aggravate your financial woes by making unnecessary purchases on high-interest credit cards.
    Noun form: aggravation – frustration with a worsening situation
    Adjective form: aggravated – particularly serious or heinous (as in aggravated assault or an aggravated injury)
  • grave (adj.) [grav, “heavy” + -e] – serious or heavy in tone or manner; particularly important or dangerous
    Mr. Jones’ grave expression as he entered the room signaled to his class that he had bad news.
    Noun form: graveness
  • gravid (adj.) [grav, “heavy” + -id] – pregnant (literally, “heavy with a child”); bulging (as if pregnant)
    Marie loves roller coasters, but her gravid state will prevent her from riding them for the next few months.
    Noun form: gravidity
  • gravitas (n.) [gravitas, “heaviness” (Latin)] – seriousness of mood or tone, implying integrity and sincerity
    Television networks traditionally seek out news anchors who possess the gravitas necessary to discuss serious events such as natural disasters and wars.
  • grievous (adj.) [griev [grav], “heavy” + -ous] – causing or characterized by great pain or suffering
    Though Walter survived the plane crash, he did suffer grievous injuries, which required months of rehabilitation.
    Noun form: grievousness

  December 02, 2008

  Root
  LEV(IT), LIEVE – to lighten, to lift up

  This root is from the Latin levis, meaning “light” (as in not heavy).  It has evolved a variety of usages, ranging from the literal (including elevator and lever) to the metaphorical (relieve, among other words).  Elevate literally means “to lift up or out of”; in this sense, an elevator is something that makes you lighter, thus allowing you to rise up.  A lever is a tool used to lift heavy objects; the lever uses principles of physics to make lifting an object easier—in other words, a lever “lightens” the weight of the object.  On the other hand, to relieve something is to make it metaphorically lighter (when you feel relief, you may feel as if a weight has been lifted from your mind or body, but there is no actual weight).

  Another word you may have heard that derives from this root is levee.  A levee is a manmade barrier used to prevent a river or other body of water from flooding the area around it.  It gets its name from the fact that it “lifts up” the river rather than let it spread to the surrounding land.

  Two words that do not come from this root are level and belief.

  • alleviate (v.) [al- [ad-], “toward” + lev, “to lighten”] – to lessen; to make easier to bear
    The two-week vacation greatly alleviated my work-related stress.
    Noun forms: alleviation
  • leverage (n.) [lever + -age] – strategic advantage; the mechanical advantage gained by being able to use a lever
    Knowing about the other company’s financial troubles gave our company great leverage in the negotiations.
  • levitate (v.) [levit, “to lift up” + -ate] – to rise or float in the air; to cause an object to float in the air
    In the comic book X-Men, the villain Magneto uses his superpowers to levitate metallic objects.
    Noun form: levitation
  • levity (n.) [levit, “to lighten” + -[t]y] – lightness of mood or tone; lack of seriousness
    The main character’s wisecracks inject a beneficial levity into an otherwise depressing film.
  • relevant (adj.) [re-, “again” + lev, “to lift up” + -ant] – related to the matter at hand; pertinent
    Most of the relevant details on human evolution are covered in the advanced anthropology textbook.
    Noun form: relevance
    Antonym: irrelevant

  November 24, 2008

  Root
  SID(E) – to sit, to settle, to relax

  This root, which comes from the Latin sedere, gives us the group of words based around reside, which literally means “to sit back; to occupy.”  Among the words based on this are resident (“one who occupies”), residual (“left over”), and residue (“what is left over”).  This root also gives us the word president—more on its origin below.

  The word side, however, does not come from this root.

  • assiduous (adj.) [as- [ad-], “toward” + sid, “to sit”] – constant; hard-working and attentive
    The assiduous students worked all night to complete their presentation.
    Noun forms: assiduousness
  • insidious (adj.) [in-, “within” + sid, “to sit” + -ious] – deceitful; seeming to be unimportant or harmless but causing damage
    Benedict Arnold acted in an insidious manner when he, while still an American general, described the American battle plans to the British.
    Noun form: insidiousness
  • dissident (n.) [dis-, “against” + sid, “to sit” + -ent] – a person who disagrees or opposes
    The newspaper columnist was an eternal dissident, always opposing the government’s actions.
    Related noun form: dissidence – the act of disagreeing
    Adjective form: dissident
  • preside (v.) [pre-, “before” + side, “to sit”] – to occupy a place of authority; to exercise control
    The newly-elected judge presided over her courtroom with a kind but firm manner.
    Adjective form: presiding
    Noun form: president – one who sits in a position of authority
  • subside (v.) [sub-, “under” + side, “to sit”] – to sink to a lower level; to become quiet or less active
    My fears subsided after I realized that the noise came from a tree moving in the wind, not from a ghost howling.
    Noun form: subsidence
  • subsidy (n.) [sub-, “under” + sid, “to sit” + -y] – money given, usually by a government, to support a particular industry, group, or action
    Alan would not be able to maintain his peanut farm without the help of the subsidy the government gives to him.
    Verb form: subsidize – to provide a subsidy
    Related adjective: subsidiary – additional; secondary or lesser (this is also a noun)

  November 17, 2008

  Root
  SED, SESS – to sit, to settle, to relax

  This root, which comes from the Latin sedere, has another form (SID, which we’ll cover next week).  Two very common words derive from this root.  The first is obsess, which literally means “to sit next to”, but has come to relate to things that dominate or preoccupy one’s thoughts (i.e., those thoughts that are constantly “sitting” in your mind).  The other is possess, which literally means “to be able to sit”, and has come to mean “to control or occupy”; an easy way to remember this is to think of a chair—if you possess the chair, you are able to sit in it.

  • assess (v.) [as- [as-], “toward” + sess, “to settle”] – to officially estimate the value of; to evaluate; to impose a tax on
    Before selling my coin collection on eBay, I had an expert assess its value.
    Noun forms: assession – the act of evaluating something
    assessor – one who evaluates (the value of) something
  • sedate (adj.) [sed-, “to relax” + -ate] – calm, quiet, or composed; unexcitable or dispassionate
    Despite the hectic nature of the campaign, the candidate remained remarkably sedate.
    Related adjective form: sedative – tending to calm, soothe, or relieve pain
    Noun form: sedative – a drug that calms a patient (often putting him or her to sleep)
    Verb form: sedate – to calm or soothe (often through the use of a sedative drug)
  • sedentary (adj.) [sed, “to sit” + -ent + -ary] – unused to physical activity; requiring a sitting posture
    Markos’ sedentary life consisted largely of sitting at a desk, whether at home or at work.
    Noun form: sedentariness
  • sediment (n.) [sedi, “to settle” + -ment, “product”] – the matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid; something left over when a fluid is removed
    The seawater around the mouth of the Mississippi River is brown due to the large amount of sediment that the river carries to the sea.
    Adjective form: sedimentary
    Verb form: sediment – to deposit sediment
  • supersede (v.) [super-, “above” + sede, “to sit”] – to replace in authority or use; to cause to be set aside as useless or obsolete; to follow after in a position
    The VCR will soon be superseded by DVD players and DVR devices such as TiVo.
    Adjective form: superseding

  November 13, 2008

  Root
  JUR(E), JURIS – to swear; law

  This root, from the Latin jurare, meaning “to swear”, is related to the root jus, which means “law” (and gives us such words as justice and justify).  Some obvious words that come from this root include jury and juror, which refer to people who “swear” to uphold the “law”.  Another common word that comes from this root is injury, which originally meant “a violation of the law; a broken oath”.  Today, injury has been expanded to mean any harm that is done to a person or thing (particularly physical harm).

  • abjure (v.) [ab-, “away from” + jure, “to swear”] – to renounce, repudiate, or retract
    After my arguments were disproved by the scientific study, I abjured my earlier opinions.
    Noun forms: abjuration – the act of renouncing
    abjurer – one who renounces
  • conjure (v.) [con-, “together” + jure, “to swear”] – to bring into being; to call to mind; to command or affect
    No matter how hard I tried, I could not conjure up any ideas for my paper on Moby Dick.
    Noun form: conjuration – the act of calling on or invoking a sacred name; magical incantation
    conjuror – one who brings things into being as if by magic; a magician
    Note: This word originally meant “to charge with a solemn task”, as in the case of a judge swearing to carry out the law.  Gradually, the word took on other meanings, starting with “command”, then “call upon”, and finally its more common modern meanings, “to call to mind” and “to bring into being”.
  • jurisdiction (n.) [juris, “law” + diction, “speaking”] – power, authority or control (especially the legal range of an institution of a governing body, such as a court, school, or police force)
    We would love to put our rules into effect everywhere, but our jurisdiction is limited to our county.
    Adjective form: jurisdictional
  • jurisprudence (n.) [juris, “law” + prudence, “wisdom”] – the philosophy or study of law
    The leading experts on American jurisprudence all agreed that the new law was unconstitutional.
    Adjective form: jurisprudent
  • objurgate (v.) [ob-, “against” + jur, “to swear” + [i]g, “to drive” + -ate] – to denounce strongly; to yell at
    I try not to objurgate my children unless they do something that puts themselves or others at risk.
    Noun form: objurgation
    Adjective form: objurgatory
  • perjury (n.) [per-, “beyond” + jur, “to swear” + -y] – to swear falsely; to lie under oath
    Judge Wilson was very strict about honesty; he absolutely would not tolerate perjury in his courtroom.
    Verb form: perjure
    Related noun form: perjurer

  October 27, 2008

  Root
  VEN(E), VENT – to come

  From the Latin venire, this root gives us many common and SAT words, including a large number of words based on the same few prefixes.  Today, we’ll focus on two of those prefixes: ad-, meaning “toward”, and co(n)-, meaning “together”.  These combinations of prefixes and venire produce, among other common words, adventure and convention. The literal meaning of adventure is “to come toward”, which gradually became “a goal or trip”, which in turn took on a sense of danger or excitement.  The most common meaning of convention, “a large gathering or coming together”, is fairly literal; we’ll deal with another meaning below.

  • advent (n.) [ad-, “toward” + vent, “come”] – beginning; arrival; coming into view; invention
    Before the advent of modern sanitary techniques, surgeries were often deadlier than the conditions they were intended to cure.
  • adventitious (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + vent, “come” + -itious] – added from outside; external; accidental
    Many of the deadliest human viruses are adventitious, having begun in other species and only recently adapted to affect humans.
    Noun form: adventitiousness
    
  • convene (v.) [con-, “together” + vent, “come”] – to come together or assemble; to cause to assemble or summon
    The judge convened the officers of her court each morning promptly at 9 a.m.
    Adjective form: convenient – easy to access or use
  • conventional (adj.) [con-, “together” + vent, “come” + -ion + -al] – conforming to accepted standards; ordinary or unoriginal
    When conventional medicines failed to cure her cold, Marie resorted to aromatherapy, acupuncture, and other, even stranger, treatments.
    Noun forms: conventionality – the state of being conventional; convention – a commonly accepted rule or practice
  • covenant (n.) [co-, “together” + ven, “come” + -ant] – a formal agreement or promise
    The covenant between the formerly warring nations included an open border and a promise of free trade.
    Adjective form: covenantal

  October 20, 2008

  Root
  PATH, PATI, PASSI – suffering, feeling

  This root, unlike most of the roots we’ve studied, derives not from Latin but from Greek.  In fact, the original Greek word, pathos, has survived as an English word (see list below).  Many common words come from this root, including passion (“strong feeling”), passive (“without feeling”), patient (literally, “one who suffers”), and compatible (“feeling the same way”).  Pathetic also derives from this root; literally, a pathetic person is one who suffers, and who thus arouses feelings of pity in others.

  In addition, there are a whole host of words that end with “-pathy”, including the common words sympathy (“shared feeling”) and telepathy (literally, “feeling at a distance,” although we usually use it in relation to reading other people’s thoughts, rather than feelings).

  Many medical words (usually describing painful conditions) use this suffix as well, including osteopathy (describing bone conditions), cardiopathy (describing heart conditions), and neuropathy (describing nerve conditions).  Some other medical words from this root include sociopath (“one who suffers from a social condition”), psychopath (“one who suffers from a mental condition”), pathogen (“a cause of suffering”), and pathology (literally, “the study of suffering”).

  • antipathy (n.) [anti-, “against” + path, “feeling” + -y] – strong dislike or hatred; the object of such dislike
     I feel a great antipathy toward anyone who attempts to restrict my right to free speech.
    Adjective form: antipathetic
  • apathy (n.) [a-, “not” + path, “feeling” + -y] – lack of passion, emotion, or interest
    Over 30% of Americans say they will not vote in the next election due to their apathy about politics.
    Adjective form: apathetic
  • empathy (n.) [em-, “in” + path, “suffering” + -y] – intellectually understanding another’s feelings
    Politicians often work very hard at showing empathy for the worries of middle class voters.
    Adjective form: empathetic
    Note: While similar in meaning to sympathy, empathy is not the same; sympathy requires you to share the feelings of another, while empathy requires you only to understand them.
  • impassive (adj.) [im-, “” + passi, “feeling” + -ive] – without emotion; calm; unable to feel or suffer
    It was impossible to remain impassive when hearing the hurricane survivor’s harrowing story.
    Noun form: impassivity
    Note: Do not confuse impassive with impassioned (note the ending), which means exactly the opposite!
  • pathos (n.) [pathos, “suffering”] – pity or compassion; the quality of a work (of art, literature, etc.) that creates a feeling of pity or compassion in othersThe young author’s ability to communicate pathos for victims on both sides of the war is impressive.

  October 11, 2008

  Root
  NOC, NOX, NUIS, NIC – harm

  This root, from the Latin nocere (“to harm, to kill”), gives us at least one very common word: innocent, which means, literally “causing no harm”.  As a side note, innocent is a formation of the archaic word nocent, which as you might guess, means “causing harm”.  Though the original word has all but disappeared from use, many of us use innocent regularly. 

  Watch out for words derived from a very similar-looking root: NOCT, NOX, which is from the Latin for “night”, and gives us such words as nocturnal and equinox.

  • innocuous (adj.) [in-, “not” + -noc, “harm” + -ous] – harmless
    Some bacteria cause debilitating diseases, but the vast majority are innocuous to humans.
    Noun form: innocuousness
  • noxious (adj.) [nox-, “harm” + -ous] – harmful; injurious; corrupting
    Mustard gas and other noxious substances were used in World War I to poison opposing armies.
    Noun form: noxiousness
  • nuisance (n.) [nuis-, “harm” (Fr.) + -ance] – an annoying or bothersome thing
    Influenza, or the flu, is mostly just a nuisance today, but its epidemics once killed millions at a time.
  • obnoxious (adj.) [ob-, “to” + -nox, “harm” + -ous] – annoying, objectionable, offensive
    My brother’s tendency to interrupt me while I am doing my homework is quite obnoxious.
    Noun form: obnoxiousness
  • pernicious (adj.) [per-, “through” + -nic, “to harm, kill” + -ous] – causing harm or ruin; fatal
    Malaria is a widespread and pernicious force in many areas of Africa that lack decent medical care.
    Noun form: perniciousness

  October 6, 2008

  Root
  BEN(E), BON – good

  The last two weeks, we dealt with the root male, meaning “evil”; this week, we will learn about its antonym, bene, which is Latin for “good”.  Interestingly, there are not nearly as many words that derive from this root as there are from male.  Apparently, English has a much greater need for “bad” words than for “good” words.  A couple common words that come from bene include benefit (“good result”) and beneficiary (“one who receives a good result”).

  In other Romance languages, such as Spanish and French, bene has become bon.  Thus, we get the word bonus, meaning an extra (good) reward.  Two French phrases have also become relatively common in English: bonbon (a type of candy; literally, “good good”) and bon mot (a witty or clever saying; literally, a “good motto”).

  • benediction (n.) [bene-, “good” + dict, “to speak”] – the speaking of good wishes; a religious blessing
    At the end of every meeting, we heard Joe’s benediction: “Work smart, everyone!”
    Adjective form: benedictory – spoken with good wishes
    
  • benefactor (n.) [bene-, “good” + factor, “maker, doer”] – one who gives time or money; a sponsor or patron
    In Dickens’ Great Expectations, a mysterious benefactor helps Pip to advance in London society.
    
  • beneficent (adj.) [bene-, “good” + -fic, “making, causing” + -ent] – causing good
    Helping Janine to find her lost dog was one of Tom’s few truly beneficent acts.
    Noun form: beneficence
    
  • benevolent (adj.) [bene-, “good” + vol, “wish, will” + -ent] – wishing others well; with good intent
    Though Jim’s jokes sometimes offended his co-workers, his goal in telling them was benevolent—to make others laugh.
    Noun form: benevolence
  • benign (adj.) [ben[i]-, “good” + -g[e]nus, “to give birth to”] – good; harmless
    Lynn was relieved to discover that the tumor was benign, and that she would not need chemotherapy.
  • bonanza (n.) [bon-, “good” + [mal]acia, “calm sea” (Sp.)] – a source of great and sudden wealth or luck
    When Jed Clampett found oil on his property, it turned out to be a bonanza for his whole family.

  September 29, 2008

  Root
  MAL, MALE – bad, evil

  This root comes from Latin, but is used in all of the romance languages, including French and Spanish.  It is often used as a prefix, and nearly always comes at the beginning of a word.  If you see this root at the beginning of a word, followed by a root whose meaning you know, figuring out the meaning of the whole word is easy—just add “bad” to the meaning of the other root!

  Here are a few common words that use mal as a prefix: malfunction (“bad” function), malnutrition (lack of nutrition), malodorous (smelling bad), maltreat (treat badly), and maladjusted (poorly adjusted).

  • malefactor (n.) [mal-, “bad” + factor, “maker, doer”] – a criminal or other evil-doer
    Though his henchmen commit numerous crimes, The Joker is the worst malefactor of Gotham City.
    
  • maleficent (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + -fic, “making, causing” + -ent] – causing evil or harm
    The Penguin’s maleficent plans did not become clear until after he was nearly elected mayor.
    Noun form: maleficence
  • malevolent (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + vol, “wish, will” + -ent] – wishing evil or harm on another
    Though Bruce’s intentions are not malevolent, his actions often cause chaos and destruction.
    Noun form: malevolence
  • malfeasance (n.) [mal-, “bad” + faisance, “activity” (Fr.)] – wrongdoing, especially when violating a public trust
    The District Attorney was arrested for blatant malfeasance after he was found to have taken $100,000 in bribes from criminals.
  • malicious (adj.) [mal-, “evil” + -ice, “intent” + -ous] – desiring to cause injury, harm, or suffering
    Catwoman may be malicious toward most humans, but she does possess a soft spot for stray kittens.
    Verb form: malice
  • malign (v.) [mal[i]-, “bad” + -g[e]nus, “to give birth to”] – to spread harmful lies about
    The jealous would-be superhero spread vicious rumors about Batman in an attempt to malign his reputation.
    Adjective form: malignant (also sometimes malign) – harmful, evil
    Note: The verb form is pronounced “muh-LINE”, while the adjective form is pronounced “muh-LIG-nunt”.
  • malinger (v.) [mal-, “bad”+ [h]eingre, “rough-looking” (Fr.)] – to pretend to be ill in an attempt to avoid work or other duties
    When half of my co-workers called in sick on the day after the holiday, I suspected that many of them were malingering.
    Noun form: malingerer – one who malingers

  September 22, 2008

  Root
  MAL, MALE – bad, evil

  This root comes from Latin, but is used in all of the romance languages, including French and Spanish.  It is often used as a prefix, and nearly always comes at the beginning of a word.  If you see this root at the beginning of a word, followed by a root whose meaning you know, figuring out the meaning of the whole word is easy—just add “bad” to the meaning of the other root!

  Here are a few common words that use mal as a prefix: malfunction (“bad” function), malnutrition (lack of nutrition), malodorous (smelling bad), maltreat (treat badly), and maladjusted (poorly adjusted).

  • malady (n.) [mal-, “bad” + [habitus], “condition”] – a chronic disorder or disease of the mind or body
    During the Civil War, nearly as many soldiers died from maladies such as typhoid as died in battle.
    
  • maladroit (adj.) [mal-, “bad” + adroit, “skillful” (Fr.)] – unskillful or awkward
    Governor Chase’s maladroit attempts to become President were, not surprisingly, unsuccessful.
    
  • malaise (n.) [mal-, “bad” + aise, “ease” (Fr.)] – a state of physical or mental weakness or discomfort
    After experiencing several political setbacks, Lincoln’s mind became mired in malaise.
    
  • malapropism (n.) [mal-, “bad” + apropos, “relevant” (Fr.)] – the act of misusing or confusing words in a ridiculous manner; one example of such misuse:
    His letter contained the hilarious malapropism, “Other candidates may retort to personal attacks.”
    Adjective form: malapropos – inappropriate; out of place; untimely
  • malcontent (n.) [mal-, “bad”+ content, “happy, satisfied”] – one who is chronically unhappy or unsatisfied
    Despite the successful conclusion of the war, some malcontents argued that the treaty’s terms were too generous.
    Adjective form: malcontent – dissatisfied with current circumstances
  • malediction (n.) [male-, “evil” + -dict, “speak”] – a curse; the speaking of a curse; harmful lies
    Upon hearing the speech, the would-be assassin uttered a malediction on the speaker’s life.
    Verb form: maledict – to put a curse on

  September 15, 2008

  Root: PEND, PENS, POND – to weigh, to hang

  Several common words from many different subjects derive from this root (from the Latin pendere).  Perhaps the most common is pound, which is both a unit of weight and the unit of currency in Great Britain.  The currency's name derives from the fact that it was once equal in value to a pound of silver.

  One word from this root that I'm sure you've run across in math class is perpendicular.  This word derives from the fact that when a weight is hung from a string, the line of the string makes a 90 degree angle with the ground.

  Two other common words from this root are pendant (a necklace with an object that hangs down in front) and pension (an amount of money "weighed out" at regular intervals, usually as a source of retirement income).

  • pensive (adj.) [pens-, "to weigh"] – dreamy; lost in thought (as if constantly "weighing" alternatives)
    Due to her pensive mood, Sally said very little during her date with Jemaine.
    Noun form: pensiveness
  • ponder (v.) [pond, "to weigh"] – to consider (or weigh) carefully and thoroughly in the mind
    Before he decided to quit the band, Bret pondered the consequences of his decision.
    Adjective form: ponderous
  • preponderance (n.) [pre-, "before" + -pond, "to weigh"] – superiority in weight, power, numbers, etc.
    Though Mel claimed to be innocent, the preponderance of evidence suggested that she was guilty.
    Adjective form: preponderant – most common
  • propensity (n.) [pro-, "forward"+ pens-, "to weigh"] – a natural tendency to do something
    Dave has a propensity for seeing the positive side of even the bleakest situation.
  • recompense (n.) [re-, "back" + com-, "together" + pens, "weigh"] – repayment; reward or compensation
    Murray received little recompense for his work as a band manager, but enjoyed it nonetheless.
    Verb form: recompense – to repay; to reward or pay someone

  September 4, 2008

  Root: PEND, PENS, POND – to weigh, to hang

  This root, from the Latin pendere, is used in several different ways in words.  It can be used literally, such as in the word suspend, which literally means “to hang below.”  It can also be used to refer to a mental state, such as in the related word suspense, which refers to a feeling that something is “weighing” on your mind.  Commonly, it refers to money; think of the words expense (literally, “something weighed out”) and spend (a corrupted form of expend).  This relationship with money derives from the time before standardized currency, when goods were paid for with coins of varying weights.  In order to be sure one was paying or receiving the correct amount, one had to weigh the coins.

  Some other common words using this root include dispense (“to weigh out, to distribute”) and depend (literally, “to weigh down”), as well as the many words based on depend: dependent, independent, interdependent, etc.

  • append (v.) [ap- [ad-], “to” + -pend, “to hang”] – to attach; to add on to the end as a supplement
    Please append a recommendation letter to the job application.
    Noun form: appendix – an added section at the end of a book, often containing reference material; also, the small portion of the end of the large intestine that once was thought to have no function
    Other noun form: appendage – a limb, such as an arm or a leg
  • compensate (v.) [com- [con-], “together” + -pens, “to weigh”] – to pay someone; to offset or counterbalance
    Michelle found that no amount of money could compensate for the loss of her beloved rose bushes.
    Noun form: compensation – payment
  • impend (v.) [im- [in-], “in, on” + -pend, “to weigh”] – to be about to happen; to threaten
    As his debts mounted, the possibility of bankruptcy impended on John and his family.
    Adjective form: impending – about to happen
  • pending (adj.) [pend-, “to hang”] – awaiting resolution; in progress; about to begin; until
    The pending peace negotiations did not stop the army from strengthening its attack forces.
    Verb form: pend – to be in progress
  • pendulous (adj.) [pend- “weigh, hang” + -ulous, “tending to”] – hanging down loosely; (people) undecided
    Every spring, the branches of the apple tree in our back yard are pendulous with the weight of fruit.

  August 28, 2008

  Root: PLIC, PLY – to fold

  Two very common words—antonyms, in fact—use this root.  Simple means, literally, “without folds,” while complicated means, literally, “folded together.”  Thus, if you take a simple task, and make it complicated, what you are really doing is folding it in on itself over and over.

  The word supplicate (more on it below), though not very common, has an interesting origin.  It literally means “to bend down,” a reference to the act of kneeling.  There are two common contexts in which one typically would kneel: when praying, and when in the presence of a powerful figure such as a king or queen.  In either case, the act of kneeling is used to convey one’s humbleness in the face of a higher power (usually in order to ask that power for a favor).  Thus, by extension, supplicate came to mean “to beg or pray earnestly for something.”

  • implicit (adj.) [im- [in-], “in” + -plic, “to fold”] – implied, rather that directly stated; unquestioning
    The implicit message of the advertisement was that using Fresh deodorant will improve your love life.
  • implicate (v.) [im- [in-], “in” + -plic, “to fold”] – to show to be involved (often in a crime); to imply a necessary
    Though the defendant claimed he was innocent, the evidence clearly implicated him.
    Noun form: implication
  • replicate (v.) [re-, “again, back” + -plic, “to fold”] – to reproduce, copy, or repeat; to bend or fold back
    No matter how many times he repeated the experiment, Doug could not replicate his initial results.
    Noun form: replica – a copy or reproduction of something, particularly a work of art
    Other noun forms: replication – the act of replicating; replicate – something that is replicated
  • supple (adj.) [sup- [sub-],“under” + -plic, “to fold”] – bending easily; flexible;(people) compliant or servile
    The bodies of Olympic-caliber gymnasts must be both powerful and supple.
    Noun form: suppleness
  • supplicate (v.) [sup- [sub-],“down” + -plic, “to fold”] – to plead earnestly; to pray humbly for
    Though Patty desperately needed a raise, she was too proud to supplicate herself to her boss.
    Noun forms: supplication – the act of supplicating; supplicant – one what supplicates 

  August 21, 2008

  Root: PLIC, PLY – to fold

  Though this root, from the Latin root plicare, literally means “to fold,” most of the words that derive from it are not literally related to folding (one that does is ply, which literally means “a single sheet or fold”).  Usually, this root is used to provide a sense of involvement or entanglement, as in the word apply, which literally means “fold toward,” but we know to mean “relate to” or “become involved with.” Some other words that come from this root: imply (literally, “to fold in with”), multiply (“to fold many times”), reply (“to fold again”), and duplicate (“to fold a second time”).

  Two words to watch out for that seem to come from this root but do not: comply and supply.  Both of these words come from the Latin root plere, meaning “full.”

  • accomplice (n.) [ac-, “toward” + com-, “together” + -plic, “to fold”] – a person who aids another in a crime
    Although Tom did not actually participate in the robbery, he acted as an accomplice by driving the getaway car.
  • complicit (adj.) [com-, “together” + -plic, “to fold”] – involved with or participating in a crime or bad act
    The police believe that Ray is complicit in his brother’s crimes, so they keep a close eye on his activities.
    Noun form: complicity
  • duplicitous (adj.) [du[o]-, “two” + -plic, “to fold”] – acting in two different ways in an attempt to deceive
    Doug duplicitously spread malicious rumors about Alicia even convincing her to be his prom date.
    Noun form: duplicity
  • explicable (adj.) [ex-,“out” + -plic, “to fold” + -able] – explainable; clear
    Despite her fears about giving a presentation on particle physics, Natasha found the subject to be quite explicable.
    Verb form: explicate – to make clear; to explain
    Antonym: inexplicable – defying explanation; mysterious
  • explicit (adj.) [ex-, “out” + -plic, “to fold”] – clearly expressed; detailed; outspoken or unrepressed
    Martin had a hard time navigating around the strange city without explicit instructions.
    Noun form: explicitness

  August 14, 2008

  Root: (S)CIS, CID – to cut

  This root, from the Latin caedere, gives us the name of everyone’s favorite arts-and-crafts tool, scissors (literally, “cutters”).  Another common word from this root is decide, which literally means “to cut off,” but which now is used to indicate the act of ending a thought process, argument, or competition.

  A very common suffix, -CIDE, is related to this root.  This suffix means “to kill,” and is used in many English words, including suicide (the act of killing oneself), homicide (the act of killing a human), and pesticide (the act of killing pests).  Here are a few less-common, but useful, words with this suffix: patricide (killing one’s father), matricide (mother), fratricide (brother), sororicide (sister), regicide (king or queen), and genocide (a race or large group of people).

  • decisive (adj.) [de-, “off” + -cis, “to cut”] – (people) showing no hesitation; determined; (things) conclusive, definite; ending an argument or controversy
    The battle of Gettysburg in the Civil War proved to be decisive blow to the Confederate cause.
    Noun form: decisiveness
    Antonym: indecisive – (people) hesitant
  • excise (v.) [ex-, “out” + -cis, “to cut”] – to cut out or off
    The surgeon successfully excised the cancerous cells that had been clustered around the patients’ liver.
    Noun form: excision
    Adjective form: excisable
    Related noun: excise – an internal tax on the production of certain products, such as tobacco
  • incisive (adj.) [in-, “into” + -cis, “to cut”] – penetrating or cutting; sharp (in tone); clear and direct
    The reporter’s incisive questions about the scandal made the politician uncomfortable.
    Noun form: incisiveness
    Related noun: incision – a cut used to provide access to an underlying layer, as in surgery
  • precise (adj.) [pre-,“before” + -cis, “to cut”] – fixed or definite in meaning; exact; distinct (literally, “to cut short”)
    When giving directions to someone unfamiliar with the city, it is important to be precise.
    Noun form: precision – exactness; carefulness; also, preciseness
  • rescind (v.) [re-, “back” + -scind [-scis], “to cut”] – to revoke or repeal; to cancel or invalidate a previous decision
    Though a state can create laws that restrict personal freedom, the Supreme Court often rescinds them.
    Noun form: rescission – the act of rescinding

  August 11, 2008

  Root: CEPT, CEIV, CIP, CAP(T) – to seize, to hold, to grasp

  Have you ever heard the Latin saying carpe diem (pronounced CAR-pay DEE-um)? If so, you may know that it means “seize the day.” You may not know, however, that it derives from the same root (capare) as words like captive (“one who is seized”), capture (“to seize”), capacity (“the amount something or someone can hold”), and capable (literally, “able to hold or grasp”; metaphorically, “able to do”). Another common word from this root is intercept, which literally means “to seize between.”

  Be careful with this root, though. Several other roots take similar forms in English, including the common root CAP(T), CEP(H), CIP, meaning “head.” This root comes from the Latin cephalus, and some words that derive from it include captain, capital, precipice, cap, cape, capitulate, capsule, capsize, and a whole bunch of anatomical and biological words.

  • capacious (adj.) [capaci-, “holding”] – capable of holding a lot; spacious
    Jamie recently bought a capacious storage space to house his many engineering projects.
    Noun form: capaciousness
  • captious (adj.) [capt-, “to seize”] – fault-finding or overly critical (literally, “seizing on small mistakes”)
    Fans of the hit TV show watch it devotedly, yet engage in captious criticism of the show on its web site.
    Noun form: captiousness
  • contraceptive (n.) [contra-, “against” + [con-] + -cept, “to grasp”] – something that prevents an idea or thing from coming into existence, especially preventing reproduction
    Careful experiment planning acts as a contraceptive against laboratory accidents.
    Related noun form: contraception – the collective name for all types of reproductive contraceptives
    Adjective form: contraceptive
  • emancipate (v.) [e[x]-,“out of” + man-, “hand” + -cip, “to seize”] – to set free, especially from slavery
    Lincoln’s desire to emancipate the Southern slaves caused dissension even among his own party.
    Noun form: emancipation
  • incapacitate (v.) [in-, “not” + capaci-, “holding”] – to disable or deprive of strength or ability
    Though Superman is invulnerable to most weapons, he is easily incapacitated by Kryptonite.
    Noun form: incapacity – lacking ability, incapacitation – the act of being incapacitated
  • municipal (adj.) [muni-, “money, taxes” + -cip, “to seize”] – related to town, city, or local government
    Grant works as a municipal clerk; he handles permits and license applications for the city government.
    Noun form: municipality – a city or town that governs itself

  August 4, 2008

  Root: CEPT, CEIV, CIP, CAP(T) – to seize, to hold, to grasp

  This very common root, from the participle form of the Latin root capere, takes many forms in English. Several of the words from this root relate to ideas that one “grasps,” including concept (“an idea one holds”), deception (“to mislead by false statement or idea”), and perceive (see below).  Several other common words take their meanings fairly directly from the root. If you receive something, you are literally “seizing” it for yourself.  If you participate, you are literally “seizing” a “part” of something for yourself.

  Finally, two commonly confused words share this root as well: accept and except.  Remember, accept is a verb meaning “to hold as one’s own; to admit to be true; to receive.”  Except, on the other hand, is a preposition or a conjunction that means “with the exclusion of,” as in the sentence “All of us except John went to the store.”

  • anticipate (v.) [anti- [ante-], “before” + -cip, “to hold”] – to foresee; to expect; to prevent
    Alton is a great cook in part because he always anticipates what is needed next in the recipe.
    Noun form: anticipation – a feeling of nervousness or excitement before an important event
    Adjective form: anticipatory
  • disciple (n.) [dis-“apart” + -cip, “to hold”] – a follower or student of an idea or leader (literally, “one who holds an idea apart from all others”)
    Famed chef Emeril Lagasse has many disciples in the world of fine cuisine.
    Related noun form: discipline – a field of study; a profession; also, the dedication needed to succeed in such a field
    
  • incipient (adj.) [in-“in” + -cip, “to seize”] – beginning; in an early stage
    Deb’s incipient acting skills blossomed when she appeared on several episodes of the TV cooking show.
    Noun form: inception – a beginning; a ceremony marking the beginning of a long process
    
  • perceive (v.) [per-, “through” + -ceiv, “to grasp”] – to become aware of; to recognize
    It is strange that no one else perceives the obvious similarity between Superman and Clark Kent.
    Noun form: perception – recognition; insight
    Adjective form: perceptible – able to be seen or recognized
    
  • precept (n.) [pre-, “before” + -cept, “to grasp”] – an important idea that acts as a rule guiding conduct
    The Golden Rule is a core precept of all the world’s major religions.
  • susceptible (adj.) [sus- [sub-], “under” + -cept, “to grasp” + -able] –  easily influenced or affected
    Natural leather is durable and has a pleasant texture, but is susceptible to water damage.
    Noun form: susceptibility
    

  July 28, 2008

  Root: TEST – to witness, to swear

  From the Latin testis, this root is often used in words related to formal swearing, such as in court.  One prime example of this is the word testify, which means “to bear witness, especially in court.”  Similarly, the word protest, which originally meant “to declare publicly,” has now changed slightly to mean “a declaration of opposition.”  The noun contest is a very common derivative of this root, meaning “a struggle for victory”; if the connection to the root seems unclear now, consider that the noun form came into use after the verb form, which we will go into greater detail on below.

  Interestingly, the word test itself is not related to this root.  Test is from the Latin testum, meaning “earthen pot”.  The connection?  An old method of determining the quality of a metal was to melt it in an earthenware pot.  From this sense of “testing” the metal’s quality came the more general meaning that we use today.

  • attest (v.) [at-, “toward, to” + -test, “to swear”] – to swear to; to declare to be true or genuine
    Having seen Betty cook on numerous occasions, Don could attest to her culinary skill.
    Noun form: attestation – an oath or declaration of truth
    Other noun form: attester – one who attests
  • contest (v.) [con-“together” + -test, “to swear”] – to argue or dispute; to struggle or fight for
    Peggy took every opportunity to contest her co-workers’ claims that women could not write copy.
    Noun forms: contest (see above); contestant – one who competes against others for a prize
    Adjective form: contestable – able to be fought for; winnable
    
  • detest (v.) [de-, “against” + -test, “to swear”] – to dislike intensely (literally, to denounce in an oath)
    Although Pete detests his co-workers, he has little choice but to be nice to them.
    Adjective form: detestable – worthy of hatred or disrespect
  • testament (n.) [test-, “to witness” + -ment] – strong evidence for something; a formal statement of belief; a will
    That Roger was named class valedictorian is a testament to both his intelligence and his hard work.
  • testimony (n.) [test-, “to witness” + -mony] – the statement of a witness made under oath; supporting evidence
    Francine stated in her testimony that she saw Carlton steal the money from the cash register.
    Related noun form: testimonial – a statement of the effectiveness of a product or service
    Adjective form: testimonial

  July 21, 2008

  Root: TORT, TORS, TORQ – to twist, to turn

  This root, from the Latin torqúere, has taken on a variety of implied meanings.  Most commonly, words derived from this root are used to imply some sort of pain.  The most commonly-used word from this root, torture, literally means “to cause great pain through twisting”; while torture refers to physical pain, a related word from this root, torment, refers to mental pain.

  You may have seen a couple words with more literal uses of the root if you have studied physics or mechanics.  Torque, in physics, is “a force that causes a twisting or rotating motion”; torsion, meanwhile, is a formal word for “twisting.”

  • contort (v.) [con-“together” + -tort, “to twist”] – to twist or bend out of shape
    The circus performer contorted her body into a variety of painful-looking positions.
    Noun form: contortion
  • distort (v.) [dis-, “apart, away” + -tort, “to twist”] – to twist out of shape; to give a false meaning to
    Karl distorted Lenny’s arguments by leaving out key points and exaggerating others.
    Noun form: distortion
    Note: While contort is nearly always used to refer to a physical twisting, distort usually refers to a twisting in the way something is seen, heard, or understood.  Thus, if one were to contort a sheet of paper, a picture drawn on that paper would likely be distorted.
  • extort (v.) [ex-, “out of” + -tort, “to twist”] – to take (money, information, etc.) by force, threat, or intimidation
    Moe extorted over two million dollars from his employer by threatening to tell the company’s secrets to its rival.
    Noun form: extortion
    Adjective form: extortive
  • retort (v.) [re-, “back” + -tort, “to turn”] – to reply sharply; to return an accusation or insult upon its source
    When Apu was teased for being small, he would often retort that “only small minds judge others on their appearances.”
    Noun form: retort – a sharp reply
  • tortuous (adj.) [tortu-, “to twist”] – full of twists and turns; circuitous or indirect; devious
    Maggie’s tortuous explanation only served to further convince her parents that she was lying.
    Noun form: tortuousness
  • torturous (adj.) [torture, “to cause pain by twisting”] – causing great pain; involving torture or suffering
    Learning to walk again after a spinal injury is a long and torturous process.
    Noun form: torture
    Note: Tortuous and torturous are commonly confused.  Remember to use tortuous to describe things that have many changes in direction, either literally (such as a path) or figuratively (such as an explanation). Torturous, on the other hand, is used to describe pain and suffering, often (but not always) physical in nature.  To remember the difference, keep in mind that torturous has an “r” just like torture does

  July 14, 2008

  Root: FLUX, FLUCT, FLU – to flow

  The Latin root fluere, meaning “to flow,” gives us several common words.  If something influences you, it is “flowing into” you, thus changing the way you feel or act.  Becoming fluent in a language allows the words of that language to “flow easily” when you speak.  Finally, a fluid is, literally, “something that flows”—in other words, something you can pour.  Here are a few tougher vocabulary words using this root:

  • affluent (adj.) [af- [ad-], “toward” + -flu, “to flow”] – wealthy (literally, with money “flowing toward” one); abundant; flowing freely
    Though Sid was raised in an affluent household, he generally disdained the importance of money.
    Noun form: affluence
  • confluence (n.) [con-“together” + -flu, “to flow”] – a flowing together of two or more things, especially rivers
    Cognitive science as a discipline exists at the confluence of psychology, neurology, and philosophy.
    Adjective form: confluent
  • fluctuate (v.) [fluct-, “to flow”] – to change constantly; to vary irregularly; to move back and forth in waves
    Though at times the stock market may seem predictable, in reality it fluctuates with little or no patterns.
    Noun form: fluctuation
  • flux (n.) [flux, “to flow”] – continuous change; a flowing
    J.D., whose moods are in a constant state of flux, rarely stays depressed for long.
  • mellifluous (adj.) [melli-, “honey” + -flu, “to flow”] – sweet-sounding (literally, “flowing like honey”)
    Carla sang the traditional Puerto Rican lullaby in a mellifluous voice, putting her daughter to sleep.
    Noun form: mellifluousness
  • superfluous (adj.) [super-, “over, above” + -flu, “to flow”] – more than necessary; excessive (literally, “overflowing”)
    Turk considers most furniture to be superfluous; he owns only a bed, a small table, and two chairs.
    Noun form: superfluity

  July 7, 2008

  Root: TRACT, TRAI, TRAY – to pull, to draw

  This root comes from the Latin tractus, the past participle of trahere, a verb meaning “to pull or draw.” You may be wondering whether this word relates to certain very common words, like trace, track, and tractor.  In all three cases, the answer is “yes.”  Trace means, literally, “to draw an outline,” and a track is “a line or path drawn on or through something.” 

  A tractor is “a machine that pulls another machine or implement,” such as on a farm.  You may have also heard the term tractor-trailer, which is the combination of a big-rig truck and the trailer that it pulls behind it (trail meaning, of course, “to follow”).  In addition, fans of the show Star Trek may be familiar with so-called tractor beams, which, on the show, are laser-like beams that are capable of pulling a ship or other object.
  

  • portray (v.) [por [pro-], “forward, forth” + -tray, “to draw”] – to make a likeness by drawing, painting, etc.; to describe vividly in words; to represent a person dramatically, as on stage or television
    The new autobiography of Jacques Cousteau portrays him as a friendly, dedicated scientist.
    Noun form: portrait (used with the visual arts), portrayal (used with dramatic performances)
  • retract (v.) [re-“back” + -tract, “to pull”] – to pull back; to take back something spoken or written
    To quell the public outcry, James retracted his controversial statements about the government.
    Noun form: retraction – a statement designed to take back a previous statement; a pulling back
  • tractable (adj.) [tract-, “to pull” + -able, “able”] – docile or easily controlled; easily handled or solved
    Mrs. Marquez was surprised to find the classroom of five-year-olds to be tractable and quiet.
    Noun form: tractability
    Antonym: intractable – unmanageable or unsolvable (as a problem)
    
  • traction (n.) [tract, “to pull, to draw”] – influence; the adhesive friction allowing a body to be pulled; the act of drawing or pulling
    Darwin’s ideas about natural selection have gradually gained traction since the late 1800s.
    
  • tract (n.) [tract, “to draw”] – an area of land or space; a period of time; a portion of the Bible (“a drawn out amount of something”)
    Every morning, Patrick surveyed his small tract of farmland before beginning his work in the fields.
    
  • trait (n.) [trait, “to draw”] – a distinguishing characteristic (literally, “something drawn”)
    While some traits, like eye color, are passed on genetically, others, like hair color, are influenced by diet and environmental conditions as well.

  Note: The words betray and traitor may seem to fit this root, but they actually come from the Latin root tradere, meaning “to betray.”

  June 30, 2008

  Root: TRACT – to pull, to draw

  This root comes from the Latin tractus, the past participle of trahere, a verb meaning “to pull or draw.” It is easy to see how most of the words from this root relate to the root’s meaning. For instance, if you have ever been attracted to someone, surely you have felt as if that person was “pulling” you toward them. Similarly, if you are continually distracted in math class, you probably often feel as if your attention is being “pulled” or “drawn” away from the teacher. Speaking of math, every time you subtract a number, what are you doing? Why, you’re “pulling” a part of that number away. Many of the words in this lesson are fairly easy to reconstruct as well, provided that you know the meanings of the prefixes (which I hope you do!).

  Pronunciation note: For the words that have two forms with the same spelling (a verb or adjective form and a noun form), place the stress on the first syllable if it is a noun (i.e., “AB-stract”) and on the last syllable if it is not a noun (i.e., “ab-STRACT”).

  • abstract (adj.) [ab[s]-, “away” + -tract, “to pull”] – theoretical or metaphorical; not related to a specific instance
    Alan’s paper ignores all practical applications of his theory, dealing only with its abstract implications.
    Verb form: abstract – to remove or separate; to summarize
    Noun forms: abstractness – lack of concreteness; abstraction – process of abstracting; abstract idea
    Related noun form: abstract – a summary of major points
  • contract (v.) [con-, “together” + -tract, “to pull”] – to limit or reduce in size; to become affected with; to make a contract
    The newspaper was forced to contract its international coverage due to budget cuts.
    Adjective form: contractible – able to be reduced; able to be spread from person to person (as a disease)
    Noun form: contraction – the shortening of a muscle; the shortening of a word (as in “can’t’)
    Related noun form: contract – a binding agreement between people or groups
  • detract (v.) [de-, “down” + -tract, “to pull”] – to diminish in importance or value (used with “from”)
    No matter how good your ideas are, grammar errors always detract from the effectiveness of your argument.
    Noun form: detraction – deminishment
    Related noun form: detractor – one who diminishes a person or idea; opponent
  • extract (v.) [ex-, “out of” + -tract, “to pull”] – to draw or pull out by force; to select or separate something of value from something of little value
    I was quite afraid of the procedure, but the surgeon extracted my wisdom teeth quickly and painlessly.
    Noun form: extraction – something that is extracted; the process of extracting; origin
    Related noun form: extract – a product prepared by extraction; a selection from a longer work
  • protract (v.) [pro-, “toward” + -tract, “to pull”] – to prolong in time or space; to extend outward
    I felt no need to protract the awkwardness of the moment, so I changed the subject.
    Adjective forms: protracted – stretched out in time; delayed
    Noun form: protraction – the act of protracting
    Related noun form: protractor – an instrument for drawing and measuring angles in geometry

  June 23, 2008

  Root: GREG – flock, herd (in other words, a group)

  One of the most common occupations in ancient times was that of a herder, a person whose job was to keep a large group of farm animals (such as sheep, cows, or goats) together.

  The Latin root that was used for words related to this job was greg. Herding is no longer as common in the modern world, but several words that come from this root are still used.

  • aggregate (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + -greg, “group”] – formed by a collection of parts into a whole
    This year’s aggregate sales from the three stores were more than double last year’s.
    Noun form: aggregate or aggregation
    Verb form: aggregate
    Note: The adjective and noun forms of this word are pronounced “AG-ruh-git” but the verb form is pronounced “AG-ruh-gate.”
  • congregate (v.) [con-, “together” + -greg, “group”] – to collect into a group or crowd
    Thousands of people congregated outside the concert hall before the performance, waiting to be let in.
    Noun form: congregation
  • egregious (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -greg, “group”] – obviously or flagrantly bad (so bad that it stands out from the group)
    Paula’s grammar errors were so egregious that her teacher made her completely re-write her essay.
    Noun form: egregiousness
  • gregarious (adj.) [gregarius, “a group”] – social; friendly
    Franz’s gregarious nature made him particularly well-suited to being a tour guide.
    Noun form: gregariousness
  • segregate (v.) [se-, “apart” + -greg, “group”] – to separate or isolate a group from the whole; to withdraw
    Although doctors attempted to segregate the sick patients, the disease continued to spread throughout the hospital.
    Noun form: segregation

  June 16, 2008

  Root: FER – to carry, to bring

  In addition to the words we covered last week, two other everyday terms come from the Latin ferre: ferry and circumference. If you have ever had to travel to a location that is separated from the land around it by a body of water, and which doesn’t have a bridge or other road traveling to it, you have probably ridden a ferry (“a boat that carries things and people back and forth across a body of water”).

  Circumference comes from the prefix circum, meaning (as you may have guessed) “circle, around.” It is used in math to refer to the distance around the edge of a circle. Think of it as the distance you must “carry” your pencil if you were to trace it around the circle.

  • odoriferous (adj.) [odor-, “smell” + -fer, “to carry”] – yielding a strong, often unpleasant, smell; morally offensive
    The odoriferous sample of fungus prompted me to put on a mask before beginning the experiment.
    Noun form: odoriferousness
  • proliferate (v.) [prol[es]-, “a lot” + -fer, “to carry”] – to grow or reproduce quickly and freely
    Without any natural predators, the deer in this forest proliferate to the point of overpopulation.
    Noun form: proliferation
    Adjective form: proliferative (rare)
  • proffer (v.) [pro-, “forward” + -fer, “to carry”] – to present or offer up for acceptance
    I refused to proffer my hand in marriage to such a rude, uncivilized man.
    Noun form: proffer
  • refer (v.) [re-, “back” + -fer, “to carry”] – to direct attention to; to relate to; to look at briefly; to direct to
    Though my paper often refers to Ayn Rand’s novels, I do not agree with her point of view.
    Noun form: reference – something that refers a reader to another source
    Alternate noun form: referral – the act of referring (as of a patient to another doctor)
    Related noun form: referendum – a binding popular vote used in place of the traditional legislative process (i.e., when the legislature “refers” a matter directly to the people)
  • vociferous (adj.) [voc-, “to call” + -fer, “to carry”] – crying out loudly and passionately
    When she was younger, my daughter Annie often vociferously refused to take a bath.
    Noun form: vociferousness
    Verb form: vociferate

  June 9, 2008

  Root: FER – to carry, to bring

  From the Latin ferre, this root is used in the following common words: different (literally, “carried apart from”), offer (“to carry toward”), prefer (“to carry before”), transfer (“to carry across”), and suffer (“to be carried under”). A beneficial exercise would be to relate these literal definitions to the dictionary definitions that you are more familiar with. Can you see how the literal meaning from the roots became today’s meaning?

  • confer (v.) [con-, “together” + -fer, “to carry”] – to ask advice from or compare views with; to bestow upon
    I wanted a second opinion about my surgery, so I conferred with my neighbor’s doctor.
    Noun form: conference
  • defer (v.) [de- , “away from” + -fer, “to carry”] – to allow another to take the lead; to give way
    Since you have studied this subject for 10 years and I am just beginning, I defer to your wisdom.
    Noun form: deference
    Adjective form: deferential
  • fertile (adj.) [fer[t]-, “to carry” + -tile, “tending to”] – productive, especially with plant or animal reproduction
    Thomas Edison had a fertile mind for invention, receiving over 1,000 distinct patents.
    Noun form: fertility
  • indifferent (adl.) [in-, “not” + dif- [dis-], “apart from” + -fer, “to carry”] – marked by no special like or dislike for something; impartial; mediocre
    Though Brian and Mark each have strong feelings on the matter, I am indifferent.
    Noun form: indifference
  • infer (v.) [in-, “into” + -fer, “to carry”] – to conclude; to guess
    While I am by no means certain, I can infer from the rising temperatures that spring will soon arrive.
    Noun form: inference
    Note: Do not confuse this word with imply, which means “to express indirectly;” if someone implies that they are unhappy, you can infer their unhappiness from the unstated meaning of their words.

  June 2, 2008

  Root: TAIN, TEN, TIN – to hold

  Another common word using this root (from the Latin tenere) is tenant, which literally means “one who holds;” today, tenant refers to a person who lives in or on another person’s property (usually paying money to the owner in return). A tenant, then, is one who holds property for another. A related word is tenement, which refers to a large complex of apartments that are rented out (and thus are “held” by someone other than the owner). Though this word was originally neutral in connotation, it has taken on a negative sense, implying extreme poverty and deplorable conditions.

  Note: Two common vocabulary words, tenuous and attenuate, come not from tenere, but rather from the related root tenuis, which means “thin.” Hence, tenuous means “flimsy, weak, or unsupported,” and attenuate means “to make thinner or weaker.”

  • retain (v.) [re-, “back” + -tain, “to hold”] – to keep in possession; to employ; to keep intact
    Though the translation contained no errors, it did not retain the playful spirit of the original.
    Noun form: retainer – a servant or employee; a device that holds something in place
    Related noun: retinue – a group of attendants (such as bridesmaids at a wedding)
  • sustain (v.) [sus- [sub-], “up” + -tain, “to hold”] – to support; to nourish; to suffer
    Patrick led the first half of the race, but he could not sustain that pace and eventually finished third.
    Noun form: sustenance – nourishment (often food)
  • tenable (adj.) [ten-, “to hold” + -able, “able”] – capable of being held, maintained, or defended
    In order for the treaty to be tenable, both countries must withdraw their armies.
    Antonym: untenable
  • tenacious (v.) [tenac-, “to hold strongly”] – persistent; not easily separated
    With a tenacious will, Samwise overcame many perils and completed his journey.
    Noun form: tenacity
  • tenet (n.) [ten-, “to hold”] – a principle or belief that is generally held to be true
    One of the central tenets of the Progressive movement is that every adult citizen has the right to vote.
  • tenor (n.) [ten-, “to hold”] – the general direction of an written work, argument, or discussion
    The tenor of Kuhn’s essay was clearly influenced by the theories of C.P. Snow.
    Note: tenor also refers to the highest adult male singing voice, and a person having such a voice (The opera singer sang in a resounding tenor .)

  May 26, 2008

  Root: TAIN, TEN, TIN – to hold

  This root, from the Latin tenere, occurs in several common words, including contain (“to hold”), maintain (“to attempt to hold in the original state”), and tenant (“one who holds land, etc. for another”).

  Note: Though it seems to come from this root, the word attain (“to achieve”) actually comes from the combination of the prefix ad- (“toward”) and the root tangere (“to touch”). Luckily, though, tangere and tenere are related (holding being very similar to touching), and so a definition using tenere would not be far off.

  • appertain (v.) [ap- [ad-], “to” + per-, “through” + -tain, “to hold”] – to belong (to)
    Though the fossils we found seemed diverse, they actually appertain to the same genus of trilobite.
  • abstain (v.) [abs-, “away” + -tain, “to hold”] – to deliberately avoid or deny oneself something
    After discovering that he had diabetes, Chuck decided to abstain from eating sweets.
    Adjective form: abstinent – deliberately avoiding something (often sexual activity)
    Noun form: abstinence
  • detain (v.) [de-, “away” + -tain, “to hold”] – to hold or keep back
    Though Moira was detained by police for questioning, she was never actually charged with a crime.
    Noun forms: detainee – one who is detained; detainment – the act of being detained
  • obtain (v.) [ob-, “up against” + -tain, “to hold”] – to acquire or gain through a planned action
    In order to complete my coin collection, I had to obtain a 1974 half-dollar.
  • pertinent (adj.) [per-, “through” + -tain, “to hold”] – relevant; on-topic
    Though his comments were not pertinent to our discussion, they were an interesting digression.
    Noun form: pertinence
    Adjective form: pertain – to be related (to); to belong (to); to refer (to)
    Antonym form: impertinent – irrelevant (applied to things or ideas); rude or improper (applied to people)
    William behaved in an impertinent manner, refusing to take off his shoes and then belching loudly.

  May 19, 2008

  Root: CED, CESS – to go; to yield

  While I’m sure you will recognize many common words using this root (process, success, access, necessary, and excess, to name a few), there are a few others that you may not recognize at first. That is because the Latin root cedere, like many roots, is not always spelled consistently in English words. For instance, the English word cease (“to stop, to give in”) is derived from this root, as is deceased (“gone,” used as a euphemism for “dead”).

  Note: The English word supersede (meaning “to replace”) is sometimes spelled supercede. It does not, however, come from this root; rather, it is derived from the Latin sedere, meaning “to sit.” (Supersede literally means “to sit on top of.”) Interestingly, even if you did use cedere instead of sedere, you’d still get a definition that is fairly close to the real one: “to go above.”

  • abscess (n.) [abs- [ab-], “away” + -cess, “to go”] – a place where pus collects around inflamed tissue; a place where undesired elements gather
    The run-down house was an abscess in the neighborhood, attracting a variety of vagrants and criminals.
    Adjective form: abscessed
  • incessant (adj.) [in-, “not” + -cess, “to yield”] – uninterrupted; continuing to the point of annoyance
    Marcia’s incessant questions so frustrated her teacher that he had to send her out of the room.
  • predecessor (n.) [pre-, “before” + de-, “remove” + -cess, “to go”] – one who came before (and is now gone)
    James’ predecessor as mayor ran the city so smoothly that James rarely had any problems to solve.
    Related verb forms: precede, decease
    Synonym: ancestor [from an[te]-, “before” + -ces “to go”]
    Antonym: successor
  • recede (v.) [re-, “back” + -ced, “to go”] – to move back or away; to grow less or smaller
    As the flood waters receded, residents were finally allowed into their homes to inspect the damage.
    Adjective form: receding
    Noun form: recession – withdrawal; a prolonged economic downturn
  • secede (v.) [se[d]-, “without” + -ced, “to go”] – to withdraw from an organization
    Although Kentucky never seceded from the U.S. during the Civil War, slavery remained legal there.
    Noun form: seccession

  May 12, 2008

  Root: CED, CESS – to go; to yield

  This root, from the Latin cedere, appears in numerous English words.  It is a very instructive root, because it can be combined with nearly all of the common Latin prefixes to form English words.  Here are a few common examples: exceed (“to go out of or beyond”), proceed (“to go forward”), succeed (“to go near; to follow”).

  Note:  Oddly, these three words (exceed, proceed, and succeed) are the only three words in the English language that end “-eed”.  All other words derived from this root, such as the ones given below, end “-ede.”

  • accede (v.) [ac- [ad-], “toward” + -ced, “to yield”] – to give in to; to express approval toward
    After Tommy begged me to give him a ride to the concert, I finally acceded.
    Noun form: accession – addition; the act of agreement; the act of joining
  • cede (v.) [ced-, “to yield”] – to yield or give up; to transfer
    Mexico ceded what is now the Southwestern U.S. to America in 1848.
    Noun form: cession
  • concede (v.) [con-, “with” + -ced, “to yield”] – to grant as a right or privilege; to accept as true (often grudgingly)
    Though I concede that Shakespeare’s plays are masterful, I prefer his sonnets.
    Noun form: concession
  • intercede (v.) [inter-, “between” + -ced, “to go”] – to intervene in an attempt to resolve differences; to mediate
    If the feud between the two baseball players does not end soon, their coach will have to intercede.
    Noun form: intercession – the act of interceding; prayer or petition in favor of another
  • precede (n.) [pre-, “before” + -ced, “to go”] – to come before, ahead, or in front of; to surpass
    George H.W. Bush preceded Bill Clinton as president; his son, George W. Bush, succeeded Clinton.
    Noun form: precedent – an earlier occurrence of something similar
    Adjective form: preceding
    Noun form: precedent – an earlier occurrence of something similar
    Synonym: antecede (ante-, like pre-, means “before” in Latin)
    Antonym: succeed (the original meaning: “to come near or after”)
    
    

  May 5, 2008

  Root: CRED – to believe, to trust

  From the Latin credere, this root gives us the word credit, and all of its many meanings. Perhaps the most common modern meaning of credit relates to the loaning of money, as with credit cards. Every time you use a credit card, the issuer of the card is essentially loaning you money, and trusting that you will repay the loan (with interest, of course). As you will see below, the word incredible also comes from this root, though its original meaning is different from the idiomatic meaning that we usually use (namely, “great”).

  Note: Be very careful not to mix up the words credible and credulous (or their antonyms), as they have very different meanings (see below).

  • accredit (v.) [ac- [ab-], “toward” + cred-, “to believe”] – to attribute to; to certify; to believe
    The maxim “A penny saved is a penny earned” is accredited to Benjamin Franklin.
    Noun form: accreditation – certification; proof of trustworthiness
    Adjective form: accredited
    Antonym: discredit – to prove to be false or untrustworthy
  • credence (n.) [cred, “to believe”] – truthfulness; evidence
    The ticket stub gave credence to Artie’s story that he was at the movie at the time of the break-in.
    Related noun: credentials or credential – evidence of authority or status; basis for belief
  • credible (adj.) [cred-, “to believe” + -[able], “able”] – believable, trustworthy
    Mary found some information on the internet, but did not find it credible enough to cite in her paper.
    Noun form: credibility
    Antonym: incredible – (literally) unbelievable
  • credulous (adj.) [cred-, “to believe”] – believing or trusting too readily; gullible
    Armando is so credulous that he believed my story about being abducted by tiny purple aliens.
    Noun form: credulity
    Antonym: incredulous – disbelieving
  • creed (n.) [cred-, “to believe”] – a system of opinion or belief; a formal statement expressing a belief
    The Olympic creed emphasizes the importance of effort rather than victory.
    Synonym: credo

  April 28, 2008

  Root: MIT, MIS – to send

  Many common words come from this root, from the Latin mittere. Among the words that are clearly defined using this root: admit (“to send in”), dismiss (“to send away”), submit (“to send to or under; to yield”), and transmit (“to send through”). This root also appears in commit, missile, mission, permit, and promise, among other words.

  Note: the common vocabulary word mitigate does NOT use this root; its root is mitis, meaning “soft”; hence, mitigate means “to soften; to lessen the impact of.”

  • emit (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -mit, “to send”] – to send out
    The scientists found that the substance only emitted radiation when heated.
    Noun form: emission
    Personal noun form: emissary – a representative sent from one group to another
    Adjective form: emissive
  • intermittent (adj.) [inter-, “between” + -mit, “to send”] – occasional; not continuous
    The intermittent sounds from the train tracks outside awoke me several times last night.
  • omit (v.) [o[b]-, “toward” + -mit, “to send”] – to leave out
    The principal apologized for accidentally omitting Susan’s name from the honor roll.
    Noun form: omission
  • remiss (adj.) [re-, “back” + -mis, “to send”] – failing to perform a duty; neglectful
    Adam was remiss in watering his plants; as a result, they became dry and brittle.
    Verb form: remit – to send as payment; to slacken; to release; to forgive
    Noun form: remission – a weakened or less damaging state (as with cancer)
    Antonym: unremitting – constant; never weakening or stopping
  • surmise (v.) [su[pe]r-, “above” + -mis, “to send”] – to guess, to theorize
    Einstein correctly surmised that energy and mass were related.
    Noun form: surmise – a guess

  April 21, 2008

  Root: LUD, LUS – to play

  Though this root, from the Latin ludere, means “to play,” its words are rarely used in a playful manner. Perhaps this is because a secondary meaning of ludere is “to mock.” The most common word using this root is illusion, meaning “deception” or “a misleading image.” Illusionists, literally, make their living by mocking your vision. Another common word has a similar meaning: delusion (“a false belief”).

  Note: Do not confuse this root with the Latin claudere, meaning “closed,” which often appears in words as clud or clus (such as include, conclude, and cluster). Watch for that leading “c” and you’ll be able to tell the difference easily.

  • allusion (n.) [al- [ad-], “toward” + lus-, “to play”] – an indirect reference (usually to a work of literature)
    When she refers to her main characters as “star-cross’d lovers,” Moira is making an allusion to Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
    Verb form: allude
    Adjective form: allusive
  • collude (v.) [col- [con-], “with” + lud-, “to play”] – to collaboratively plan (usually with evil intent)
    Sam suspects that the oil companies have colluded to raise gas prices so as to make more profit.
    Noun form: collusion
    Adjective form: collusive
  • elude (v.) [e[x]-, “out of” + lud-, “to play”] – to avoid skillfully; to escape one’s understanding
    The ability to elude potential tacklers is crucial to any quarterback who hopes to succeed in football.
    Adjective form: elusive
  • interlude (n.) [inter-, “between” + lud-, “to play”] – an event or period that comes between or interrupts
    My lunch hour is a welcome interlude from the daily stresses of my job.
  • ludicrous (adj.) [lud-, “to play”] – laughably ill-fitting; absurdly foolish or false
    The pink and green polka-dotted tie served as a fittingly ludicrous accent to the clown’s outfit.
    Noun form: ludicrousness

  Special bonus word!

  • prelude (n.) [pre-, “before” + lud-, “to play”] – an introductory event, action, or performance
    As exciting as the scene was, it was but a prelude to the breathtaking action sequences that followed.

  April 14, 2008

  
  Root: PLAC – calm; pleasing

  Though this root, from the Latin placere, may seem to be the root for the word place, it is in fact only secondarily related. The root for place is actually platea, meaning “flat”—place’s original meaning is simply “a flat area.” The two roots are cousins, however; platea ultimately comes from the same root as placere. You can probably imagine how a word meaning “calm” could eventually come to mean “flat”—just picture a calm ocean, and think of how flat the water would be.

  One common word that does come from placere is please (and all its variants). Though it is spelled differently from the root, their meanings are obviously the same.

  • complacent (adj.) [com- [con-], “together” + plac-, “pleasing”] – pleased with one’s situation, often while ignoring potential problems or dangers
    Despite his low-paying job and mounting debts, Barry complacently refused to ask for a promotion.
    Noun form: complacency
  • implacable (adj.) [im- [in-], “not” + plac-, “calm”] – not able to be pleased or calmed; unstoppable
    The storm’s implacable advance was a frightening example of nature’s power.
    Noun form: implacability
  • placate (v.) [plac-, “calm”] – to calm down; to appease
    Andrea placated her baby by offering it a bottle.
    Noun form: placation
    Adjective form: placating
  • placebo (n.) [plac-, “pleasing”] – a substance used in place of a medicine so as to please a patient (who thinks it to be medicine)
    The doctor found that giving patients a placebo was nearly as effective at curing headaches as giving them actual pain-relievers.
    
  • placid (adj.) [plac-, “calm”] – calm, peaceful; quiet; undisturbed
    The placid waters of the pond were momentarily disturbed by the duck’s landing.
    Noun form: placidity

  April 7, 2008

  
  Root: GRAD, GRESS – step, stage, degree

  From the Latin gradus, this root is often used to indicate progress (or the lack thereof).  In fact, the word progress itself comes from this root (meaning “to step forward”).  Other common words using this root include: graduate (“to step to the next level”), grade (“stage, level”), aggressive (“moving toward”), congress (“stepping together”), and gradual (“step by step”).

  • degrade (v.) [de-, “lower” + grad-, “step”] – to lower in dignity; to reduce; to weaken
    Despite his financial troubles, Franz would not degrade himself by taking a job as a janitor.
    Noun form: degradation
    Adjective form: degrading
  • digress (v.) [di-, “twice” + -gress, “step”] – to wander off the main topic when speaking or writing
    Though her argument was sound, Sheila’s tendency to digress weakened the impact of her essay.
    Noun form: digression
    Adjective form: digressive
  • egress (n.) [e[x]-, “out of” + -gress, “step”] – the act of leaving; an exit; an escape
    Our egress from the crowded stadium was surprisingly quick and easy.
    Verb form: egress – to go out; to emerge
  • regress (v.) [re-, “back” + -gress, “step”] – to go backward; to revert to a less advanced form
    William found that his chess skills regressed when he did not practice consistently.
    Noun form: regression
    Adjective form: regressive – tending to go backward; (taxes) affecting the poor more than the rich
  • transgress (v.) [trans-, “beyond” + -gress, “step”] – to violate a law or moral code; to sin; to go beyond a limit
    Mona transgressed when she neglected to remove her shoes before entering Amit’s house.
    Noun form: transgression

  March 31, 2008

  
  Root: FID – faith, trust

  From the Latin fidare, this root is often used with words that involve swearing and oath-taking. Among the common words that use this root are confident (“having faith in oneself”) and fiancé (“a person whom you have sworn to be faithful to”). This root is also used in the official motto of the marines, Semper fidelis (often abbreviated as “Semper Fi”), which is the Latin for “always faithful,” as well as the phrase bona fide, which means “good and true, legitimate.” The dog name Fido, literally meaning “faithful,” also uses this root.

  • affidavit (n.) [af- [ad-], “toward” + fid-, “faith”] – a written declaration made under oath
    Chelsea swore in her affidavit that she did not see the defendant on the night in question.
  • confide (v.) [con-, “together, with” + fid-, “faith”] – to tell someone a secret
    Barry confided to me that he had finished writing his essay only an hour before class.
    Adjective form: confidential
    Noun form: confidant – a person whom one trusts with a secret
    Related nouns: confederacy – an alliance for a common purpose, often with unlawful intent; confederate – a member of such an alliance
  • diffident (adj.) [dif- [dis-], “without” + fid-, “faith”] – lacking faith in one’s abilities
    Despite her friends’ encouragement, Martha remained diffident about her writing skills.
    Noun form: diffidence
  • infidelity (n.) [in-, “not” + fid-, “faith”] – disloyalty, often to one’s spouse
    Martin received very little in the divorce settlement due to his extensive infidelity.
    Other noun form: infidel – a disbeliever, often in a particular religious faith
    Antonym: fidelity – faithfulness, loyalty; accuracy (especially with sound or video recordings)
  • perfidy (n.) [per-, “beyond” + fid-, “faith”] – betrayal of trust; treachery
    Benedict Arnold’s treasonous actions during the Revolution made his name synonymous with perfidy.
    Adjective form: perfidious

  March 24, 2008

  
  Root: VOC, VOK – to call
  Whereas last week we dealt with the Latin root meaning “to speak,” this week we are dealing with the Latin root meaning “to call,” vocare, which is related to the Latin root meaning “voice,” vox. Some comman words using this root include vocal (“calling”), provoke (“to call forth feelings; to arouse”), and revoke (“to call back”). The word provocative, a cousin of provoke, is also fairly common; it means “causing an emotional reaction; stimulating.”

  • advocate (v.) [ad-, “toward” + voc-, “to call”] – to speak or write in favor of; to publicly support
    Due to your uncertain financial situation, I cannot advocate that you buy a new car.
    Noun form: advocacy – being in favor of something; advocate – supporter
    Note: The last syllable of the verb form is pronounced like “Kate,” but the last syllable of the noun form is pronounced like “kit.”
  • convoke (v.) [con-, “together, with” + vok-, “to call”] – to call together; to summon for a meeting
    The club president will convoke the meeting ten minutes after the final school bell sounds.
    Noun form: convocation – a call to assemble; a formal assembly
  • equivocal (adj.) [equi-, “equal” + voc-, “to call”] – deliberately ambiguous; refusing to take a position
    The politician frustrated reporters with his equivocal responses to their seemingly simple questions.
    Verb form: equivocate
    Noun form: equivocation – the act of being equivocal, equivocalness – being equivocal (as a trait)
    Antonym: unequivocal – impossible to misinterpret; of clear intent
  • evocative (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + voc-, “to call”] – calling forth or producing emotion
    I found the poem to be highly evocative of the trials and tribulations of adolescence.
    Verb form: evoke
    Noun form: evocation
  • vociferous (adj.) [voc-, “to call” + fer-, “to carry”] – crying out noisily
    Despite Jane’s vociferous objections, the board of directors accepted the proposal.
    Verb form: vociferate
    Noun form: vociferousness

  March 17, 2008

  
  Root: LOQU, LOCU – to speak
  Since people love to talk, it is not surprising that several important words come from this Latin root.  In addition to the words below, two others are fairly common in the arts.  The first, soliloquy (“speaking to oneself”), refers to a speech that a character in a play gives while alone on stage.  The second, ventriloquist (“speaking from one’s abdomen”), describes a performer who, by speaking without moving his lips, appears to project his voice into a dummy or puppet.

  • circumlocution (n.) [circum-, “around” + locu-, “to speak”] – indirect speech; using more words than necessary
    Vance’s speech was too short, so he resorted to circumlocution to fill up the required time.
    Adjective form: circumlocutory
  • colloquial (adj.) [col-, “together, with” + loqu-, “to speak”] – related to ordinary or familiar speech; informal
    Colloquial words such as “y’all” and “gonna” should be avoided in formal essays.
  • eloquent (adj.) [e[x]-, “out of” + loqu-, “to speak”] – fluent, powerful, and expressive in speech
    The author was widely lauded for his novel’s eloquent closing passage.
    Noun forms: eloquence
  • loquacious (adj.) [loqu-, “to speak”] – very talkative
    Priscilla’s loquacious nature led her to seek a job as a radio host.
    Noun form: loquacity
  • magniloquent (adj.) [magni-, “large” + loqu-, “to speak”] – speaking in a lofty or pompous style; boastful
    Muhammad Ali was both a flamboyant showman and a magniloquent speaker.
    Noun form: magniloquence
    Synonym: grandiloquent

  March 10, 2008

  
  Root: JECT, JET – to throw
  Several very common words use this root, from the Latin jacere.  These include the verbs reject (“to throw back”), eject (“to throw out”), inject (“to throw in”), object (“to throw against”), project (“to throw forward”), and subject (“to throw under”), all of which are fairly straightforward translations from their roots.  Two very important grammar terms, though less obvious, still relate to the root: subject (“the noun under which the sentence is thrown or constructed”) and object (“a noun that can be thrown up against another noun”).

  • abject (adj.) [ab-, “away from, down” + -ject, “to throw”] – completely hopeless, miserable; low, vile
    Many people in Africa live their entire lives in abject poverty.
    Noun form: abjectness
  • conjecture (n.) [con-, “together, with” + -ject, “to throw”] – speculation; guesswork
    Rather than rely on conjecture, Stan always provides plenty of evidence for his theories.
    Noun form: conjecture – to theorize with insufficient evidence; to guess
  • dejected (adj.) [de-, “down” + -ject, “to throw”] – in low spirits; depressed
    Her mother’s illness often left Minka feeling dejected.
    Noun form: dejection
    Verb form: deject
  • interject (v.) [inter-, “between” + -ject, “to throw”] – to insert between other things; to interrupt
    When she heard her friends arguing, Raina could not help but interject her opinion.
    Noun form: interjection – an isolated remark indicating emotion (such as “Hey!” or “Ouch!”)
  • jettison (v.) [je[c]t-, “to throw”] – to discard or throw out; to throw overboard
    The pilot was forced to jettison most of his fuel before attempting the crash landing.

  March 3, 2008

  
  Root: VERT, VERS – to turn
  Last week, we covered some vocabulary words using this very common root (from the Latin versus). This week, we’ll delve into a few more. You may have noticed that the Latin form of this root, versus, is used in English as well. Indeed, we use it often to describe sporting events and other competitions between two people or groups, such as the “Giants versus Patriots” Super Bowl or the “Fischer versus Spassky” chess match. Here, versus means literally “turned against one another,” or less literally, “in
  opposition to.”

  • adverse (adj.) [ad-, “toward” + vers-, “to turn”] – opposing one’s interests; antagonistic or unfavorable
    Jim had hoped to fly his kite today, but adverse weather prevented him from doing so.
    Noun form: adversity – a time of hardship; an unfortunate event. The word advertise uses the same roots, but in another way (“to direct information toward”).
    
    
  • controversy (n.) [contro-, “against” + vers-, “to turn”] – prolonged argument or debate
    The new school dress code caused a great deal of controversy amongst the students and faculty.
    Verb form: controvert – to argue against; to debate or discuss
    
    
  • introverted (adj.) [intro-, “inward” + vert-, “to turn”] – shy
    Maria was so introverted that she went an entire year without speaking in class.
    Noun forms: introvert – a shy person; introversion – shyness
    Verb form: introvert – to turn inward
    Antonym: extroverted – outgoing; friendly; social
    
    
  • perverse (adj.) [per-, “very” + vers-, “to turn”] – determined to go against what is right; wicked
    Alfonse had a perverse desire to interrupt other people’s conversations.
    Noun forms: pervert – a wicked or deviant person, perversion – wickedness; abnormality
    Verb form: pervert – to lead astray morally; to turn from the right course
    
    
  • traverse (v.) [tra(ns)-, “beyond” + vers- “to turn”] – to travel over, along, or through
    Milena traversed the treacherous mountain trail slowly and carefully.
    Noun form: traverse – a path across something; the act of crossing
    

  February 25, 2008

  
  Root: VERT, VERS – to turn
  One of the more common Latin roots in English, versus pops up in all kinds of places.  Some common words, such as reverse (“to turn back”), convert (“to turn into something else”), and vertical (“turned upright”) make obvious use of it, but it appears in unexpected words as well: verse (“a turn of phrase”), universal (“all turned in one direction, of worldwide scope”), and even vertebrate (“an animal able to turn upright [because of a backbone]”).

  • averse (adj.) [a(b)-, “away” + vers-, “to turn”] – turned away from; opposed to (used with “to”)
    Lana, who hates cold weather, is averse to vacationing at a ski resort.
    Verb form: avert – to avoid (used with events, not people: to avert a collision)
    Noun form: aversion – hatred (used with “toward”: an aversion toward broccoli)
    
    
  • diverse (adj.) [di-, “two” + vers-, “to turn”] – turned in two or more directions; varied
    The forests of Alaska, surprisingly, support diverse wildlife, including over 100 species of birds.
    Verb forms:
         divert – to turn away from or distract (used with “from”: to be diverted from a path)
         diversify – to make more diverse
    Noun form: diversion – an activity (usually entertaining) that turns one away from a routine
    
    
  • inadvertent (adj.) [in-, “not” + ad-, “toward”, vert-, “to
    turn”] – unintentional; on accident
    After her hiccup echoed through the silent theater, Rebecca apologized for the inadvertent disruption.
    Antonym: advertent – intentional
    
    
  • subvert (v.) [sub-, “under” + vert-, “to turn”] – to corrupt; to cause the downfall of; to destroy
    During the Cold War, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. sought to subvert each other’s society.
    Noun form: subversion
    
    
  • versatile (adj.) [vers-, “to turn” + -ate + -ile, “capable
    of”] – able to turn in many directions; having many uses
    Jackie Robinson was a versatile athlete; in college, he starred in baseball, basketball, and track.
    Noun form: versatility

  February 18, 2008

  Root: ANIM – spirit, mind
  From the Latin animus, this root is often used in words relating to life, such as animal (“creature with life or spirit”) and animate (“to give life or spirit to something”).  Interestingly, the root animus also is sometimes used to refer to a strong dislike (as in the word animosity); apparently, the ancient Romans thought that anything with a spirit must be capable of hatred!

  • Magnanimous (adj.) [magna-, “large” + anim-, “spirit”] – noble and generous in spirit
    Always dignified in defeat, Andre Agassi congratulated his opponents magnanimously after each loss.
    Noun form: magnanimity
    
    
  • Pusillanimous (adj.) [pusilla-, “very small, petty” + anim-, “spirit”] – cowardly; timid
    Carl’s pusillanimous refusal to give a speech in front of the class caused his classmates to tease him.
    Noun form: pusillanimity
    
    
  • Equanimity (n.) [equi-, “even, equal” + anim-, “spirit”] – mental stability or composure, especially under stress
    Despite the rigors of medical school, Lorraine completed each task with skill and equanimity.
    Adjective form: equanimous (rarely used)
    
    
  • Unanimous (adj.) [uni-, “one” + anim-, “mind, spirit”] – of one mind; in total agreement
    The judges had such similar views that their decisions were often unanimous.
    Noun form: unanimity
    
    
  • Inanimate (adj.) [in-, “not” + anim-, “spirit, life”] – non-living; appearing to be dead
    The magician claims to be able to move chairs and other inanimate objects using only his mind.
    Noun forms: inanimateness, inanimation (archaic)
    

February 11, 2008

Root: PATH
Pathos, the Greek word for suffering, is a root for many words that deal with suffering, disease, or feeling and emotions.

• Apathy: n. (a- ‘without’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern.
  Prior to finding the right teacher, the student felt a general sense of apathy towards all his studies.
  
  
• Empathy: n. (em- ‘in’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
  The college freshman felt a great sense of empathy for his sister as she struggled to write her college application essay.
  
  
• Antipathy: n. (anti- ‘against’ + pathos- ‘feeling’)
  a deep-seated feeling of dislike; aversion
  The Lancers felt a great sense of antipathy against their arch rivals in football, the Cougars.
  
  
• Pathological: adj. (path- ‘disease’ + logos- ‘reason’)
  involving, caused by, or of the nature of a physical or mental disease informal compulsive; obsessive
  Jeremy was a pathological liar: he was unable to tell the truth even when it was in his best interest to do so.
  
  
• Pathetic: adj. (pathos- ‘suffering’)
  1 arousing pity, esp. through vulnerability or sadness
  informal miserably inadequate
  2 archaic relating to the emotions.
  I helped John study for tomorrow’s Algebra test because he had looked so pathetic when he had failed the last one.
  When John’s girlfriend broke up with him, he looked so pathetically sad we took him out to cheer him up.

February 4, 2008

• Castigate vb. To scold or punish severely
  Before castigating others about speeding, ask yourself if you always obey the speed limit.
  
  
• Obsequious adj. Obeying or performing a service for someone in an overly attentive manner.
  Hoping for a big tip, the waiter oozed obsequiousness, constantly flattering me and calling me "sir."
  
  
• Phlegmatic adj. Hard to get excited or emotional; calm
  Steven Wright makes a living being a phlegmatic comedian.
  
  
• Soporific adj. Sleep-inducing; sleepy
  Before I came to C2, I found math to be soporific. Now, I get a charge out of it.
  
  
• Sycophant n. A self-server who tries to gain the favor of others through the use of flattery or by being over-attentive.
  The king couldn't distinguish the honest advisers from the sycophants who flattered him for personal gain.

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